» 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


It  ^* 


\YU 


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,>.^ 


€:i)c  i^i^torical  ^cric^  for  13ible  ^tunent^- 


EDITED   BY 


Professor  CHARLES   F.  KENT,  Ph.D.,  of  Yale  University, 

AND 

FRANK   K.  SANDERS,  Pu.D.,  D.D. 


efolumc  IX. 


OUTLINES 

FOR   THE 

STUDY   OF    BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AND 
LITERATURE. 


The  Historical  Series  for  Bible  Students. 

Edited  by  Professor  CHARLES   F.  KENT,   Ph.D.,    of    Yale     University, 
and  Professor  FRANK  K.  SANDERS,  Ph.D.,  of  Yale  University. 


IN  response  to  a  widespread  demand  for  non-technical  yet  scholarly  and  reli- 
able guides  to  the  study  of  the  history,  literature,  and  teaciiing  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  of  the  contemporary  history  and  literature,  this  series 
aims  to  pre;>ent  in  concise  and  attractive  form  the  results  of  investigation  and 
exploration  in  these  broad  fields.  Based  upon  thoroughly  critical  scholarship,  it 
will  emphasize  assured  and  positive  rather  than  transitional  positions.  The  series 
as  a  whole  is  intended  to  present  a  complete  and  connected  picture  of  the  social, 
political,  and  religious  hfe  of  the  men  and  peoples  who  figure  most  prominently  in 
the  biblical  records. 

Each  volume  will  be  complete  in  itself,  treating  comprehensively  a  given  sub- 
ject or  period.  It  will  also  refer  freely  to  the  biblical  and  monumental  sources, 
and  to  the  standard  authorities.  Convenience  of  size,  clearness  of  presentation, 
and  helpfulness  to  the  student,  will  make  the  series  particularly  well  adapted  for 
(i)  practical  text-books  for  college,  seminary,  and  university  classes  ;  (2)  hand- 
books for  the  use  of  Bible  classes,  clubs,  and  guilds;  (3)  guides  for  individual 
study;  and  (4)  books  for  general  reference. 


HISTORY    OF   THE   HEBREW    PEOPLE. 

1.  The   United   Kingdom.      Sixth  edi-        Charles    F.  Kent,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 

tion.  Biblical  Literature,  Yale  University. 

2.  The  Divided  Kingdom.     Sixth   edi- 

tion. 

HISTORY   OF   THE  JEWISH    PEOPLE. 

3.  The  Babylonian,  Persian,  and  Greek        Charles  F.    Kent,   Ph.D.,  Professor  of 

Periods.  I'iblical  Literature,  Yale  University. 

4.  The  Maccabean  and  Roman  Period        James  S.   Riggs,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Rib- 

( including  Nevif  Testament  Times).  lic.il  Criticism,  Auburn  'J'lieological  Sem- 

inary. 

CONTEMPORARY    OLD    TESTAMENT    HISTORY. 

5.  History  of  the  Egyptians.  James   H.    Breasted,    Ph  D.,  Assistant 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and 
Egyptology,  The  University  of  Chicago. 

6.  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  As-        George  S.  Goodsperd,  Ph.D.,  late  Pro- 

syrians.  fessor  of  Ancient   History,  The  Univer- 

sity of  Chicagii. 

NEW    TESTAMENT    HISTORIES. 

7.  The  Life  of  Jesus.  Rush  Rhees,  President  of  the  University 

of  Rochester. 

8.  The  Apostolic  Age.  George  T.   Purves,   Ph  D.,    D.D.,   late 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Literature 
and  Exegesis,  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary. 

OUTLINES    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    BIBLICAL 
HISTORY    AND    LITERATURE. 

9.  From  Earliest  Times  to  200  A.  D.  Frank  K.   Sanders,   Ph.D.,  D.D,  Pro- 

fessor of  P.iblical  Literature,  Yale  Uni- 
versity, and  Henry  T.  Fowler,  Ph.D  , 
Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  His- 
tory, Brown  University. 

Volumes  i,  2,  3,  4.  6,  7,  8,  g  now  ready. 


^^ 


OUTLINES 

FOR    THE    STUDY   OF 

BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

BY 

FRANK   KNIGHT   SANDERS,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

SOMETIME    DEAN    OF    THE    THEOLOGICAL    FACULTY    AND    PROFESSOR    OF 
BIBLICAL    HISTORY   AND   ARCHAEOLOGY,    YALE    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

HENRY   THATCHER   FOWLER,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE    AND   HISTORY 
BROWN    UNIVERSITY 


WITH  MAPS  AND   CHARTS 


NEW   YORK 

CHARLES    SCJRIBNEll'S   SONS 
1906 


^ 


V 

Copyright,  1906, 
By  Charles  Scribxer's  Sons. 

Publislied  October,  1906. 


THE    UNIVERSITY   PRESS,   CAMBRIDGE,    IT.  S.  A. 


c: 


TO 

OUR     HONORED     TEACHER     AND 
GENEROUS    FRIEND 

WILLIAM    RAINEY    HARPER 

TO    WHOSE    UNFAILING    ENTHUSIASM    AND    REVERENT    SCHOLARSHIP 

WE    OWE    THAT    LOVE    FOR    BIBLICAL    STUDY    WHICH    HAS 

MADE    THE    TEACHING    OF    THE    BIBLE    A 

CONTINUOUS    PRIVILEGE 

THIS   VOLUME   IS   DEDICATED 

IN   AFFECTIONATE    AND    GRATEFUL    REMEMBRANCE 


•1 70A<>31 


PREFACE 

The  present  course  of  study  is  the  outgrowth  of 
eighteen  years  of  experiment  in  the  effort  to  give  an 
orderly  view  of  the  development  and  significance  of 
the  Bible.  The  students  by  whose  needs  the  work  has 
been  shaped  have  included  not  only  those  who  were 
looking  forward  to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  but  gradu- 
ate students  pursuing  special  studies  in  Oriental  history 
and  literature,  and  undergraduates  interested  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible  as  a  factor  in  broad  culture.  During 
these  years,  because  of  the  rapidly  increasing  appre- 
ciation of  the  place  of  the  Bible  in  general  education, 
the  third  class  has  become  by  far  the  most  important 
of  the  three. 

Growing  out  of  the  effort  to  meet  such  varied  needs, 
these  outlines  will,  it  is  hoped,  prove  acceptable  to 
more  than  one  class  of  students.  They  have  been  pre- 
pared with  four  classes  especially  in  mind  :  the  college 
student  who  has  no  professional  interest  in  the  subject, 
but  desires  to  understand  something  of  the  Bible  in 
its  rightful  place  in  human  history ;  the  graduate  stu- 
dent specializing  in  Oriental  history  or  literature  who 
needs  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole  sweep  of 
ancient  Semitic  civilization;  tlie  professional  student  of 
theology  whose  saneness  of  interj)retation  will  largely 


Viii  PREFACE 

depend  upon  his  grasp  of  the  Bible  as  a  historically 
connected  whole ;  and  the  general  student  of  the  Bible 
who  finds  an  increasing  joy  in  its  mastery. 

As  the  title  of  the  volume  indicates,  it  contains  merely 
outlines  which  direct  the  student  in  the  systematic 
study  of  the  Bible  itself  and  in  the  discriminating  use 
of  the  best  reference  literature.  The  topics  are  so 
arranged  that  one  or  more  phases  of  the  work  may  be 
omitted  without  breaking  the  continuity  of  the  course. 
For  example,  those  desiring  a  scientific  grasp  of  the 
history  will  give  their  chief  attention  to  the  sections 
dealing  with  the  sources.  Others,  whose  main  interest 
lies  in  the  books  of  the  Bible  and  their  contents,  will 
emphasize  especially  the  sections  which  treat  of  the 
literature  of  each  period.  No  pains  have  been  spared 
to  make  the  outlines  definite  enough  to  become  a  help- 
ful guide  to  the  student  who  does  his  work  without 
further  direction,  and  yet  elastic  enough  to  give  free 
play  to  the  experienced  teacher.  The  difficulty  of  this 
combination  need  not  be  emphasized ;  the  authors  fully 
realize  that  their  work  will  be  open  to  criticism  because 
it  fails  to  meet  fully  either  ideal. 

Care  has  been  taken  to  make  the  outlines  complete 
and  accurate  as  well  as  constructive.  In  a  field  so 
broad  and  diversified  there  is  constant  liability  to  a 
lack  of  proportion  in  treatment  and  to  error  in  detail. 
On  questions  with  reference  to  which  competent  scholars 
have  still  a  difference  of  opinion,  the  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  indicate  clearly  the  nature  of  the  problem  and 
to  enable  the  student  to  investigate  it  for  himself.     So 


PREFACE  ix 

far  as  the  authors  may  seem  to  impose  conchisions 
upon  those  who  are  following  their  guidance,  these  are 
believed  fairly  to  represent  the  consensus  of  opinion  of 
the  sober  and  reverent  scholarship  of  to-day. 

Our  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  Charles  F.  Kent, 
Ph.D.,  of  Yale  University,  who  has  reviewed  the  earlier 
portions  of  the  volume,  and  to  Professor '  Clyde  W. 
Votaw,  Ph.D.,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  for  similar 
service  in  the  section  relating  to  the  Apostolic  age. 

F.  K.  S. 
H.  T.  F. 

September  15,  1906. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

Sections  1-3.     Pages  3-9 

Sectiox  1.  Scope  of  the  Study.     2.  Geueral  Plan  of  the  Study. 
3.  Bibliography. 

PART  I 

HEBREW   HISTORY    AND   LITERATURE 


EARLY    SEMITIC    HISTORY 

Sections  4-9.     Pages  13-29 

Section  4.  Importance  of  the  Ancient  Semites  in  the  History 
of  Civilization.  5.  Geography  of  the  Ancient  Semitic  World. 
6.  The  Semitic  Peoples.  7.  Records  of  Earliest  Semitic 
Civilization.  8.  Ancient  Babylonia  until  about  1200  b.  c. 
9.  Ancient  Syria  and  Palestine  until  about  1200  B-  C 

II 

TRADITIONS    OF    THE    IIEBKEWS    REGAKDING    THE 
BEGINNINGS  OP   HUMAN  HISTORY  — Gii>'KSis  1-1I-" 

Sections  10-20.    Pages  30-49 

Section  10.  First  Creation  Account  of  Genesis  and  the  Baby- 
lonian Creation  Narrative.  Genesis  1-2*'.  11.  Second  Cre- 
ation Account  of  Genesis.  Genesis  2^"  25.  12.  Paradise  and 
the  Fall.  Genesis  2*  ",  ;3i-^.  13.  Story  of  Cain  and  Abel. 
Genesis  l^'i®*.  11.  The  Two  Lists  of  Antediluvians.  Genesis 
4^*'^-5.     l.j.  The  Deluge  Narrative  in  Genesis  and  in  Baby- 


xii  CONTENTS 

Ionian  Literature.  Genesis  0-9^^  IG.  Noah,  the  First  Vine- 
yard Keeper,  and  his  Sons.  Genesis  9'^°-^^.  17.  Table  of  the 
Nations.  Genesis  10.  18.  Tower  of  Babel.  Genesis  Ifi"^. 
19.  The  Postdiluvians.  Genesis  1P°"-^  20.  General  View  of 
Genesis  1-1  l^e. 

Ill 

FORMATIVE  AGE   OF  HEBREW  PIISTORY  —  Genesis  112'  to 

First  Samuel  7 

Sections  21-26.     Pages  .50-72 

Section  21.   Period   of   the   Patriarchs.    Genesis   ll^'^-SO.     22. 

Period  of  the  Exodus.    23.  Period  of  the  Wilderness  Sojourn. 

24:.   Conquest   of   Canaan.     25.    Period  of   the  Judges.     26. 

Beginnings  of  Hebrew  Literature. 

IV 

AGE   OF   UNITED   KINGDOM 
Sections  27-30.    Pages  73-81 
Section  27.  Period  of  Saul.    28.  Period  of  David.    29.  Period  of 
Solomon.     30.  Literature  in  the  Age  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

V 

AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION 
Sections  31-34.     Pages  82-114 
Section  31.  Pre-Assyrian  Period  (c.  937-842  B.C.).     32.  Assy- 
rian Period  of  Israel's  History  (842-722  b.  c).     33.  Assyrian 
Period  of  Judah's  History  (842-639  b.  c).     34.  Babylonian 
Period  of  Judah's  History  (639-586  b.  c). 

PART  II 

EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

VI 

AGE   OF   THE   BABYLONIAN  EXILE  (586-538  b.  c.) 
Sections  35-36.     Pages  117-126 
Section  35.    Period  of  Earlier  Years  of  Exile  (586-561  b.  c). 
36.  Period  of  Later  Y'ears  of  Exile  (561-538  b.  c). 


CONTENTS  Xlll 

VII 

PERSIAN  AGE  (538-332  B.C.) 
Sections  37-38.     Pages  127-139 

Sectiox  37.  Period  of  Partial  Restoration  (538-c. 450  B.C.). 
38.  Period  of  Restoration  of  the  City  Walls  and  Establish- 
ment of  the  Priestly  Law  (c.  450-332  b.  c). 

VIII 

GREEK   AGE  (332-168  B.C.) 

Sections  39-40.     Pages  140-148 

Section  39.  Period  of  Alexander  and  of  the  Struggle  of  his 
Successors  (332-198  b.  c).  40.  Period  of  Seleucid  Rule  (198- 
168  B.C.). 

PART  III 

LATER  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

IX 

MACCABEAN  AGE  (168-63  b.c.) 

Sections  41-42.    Pages  151-161 

Section  41.  Period  of  Struggle  for  Independence  (1G8-142  b.  c). 
42.  Period  of  Independence  (142-03  b.  c). 

X 

ROMAN   AGE    (63  b.  C.-135  a.  r..) 

Sections  43-45.     Pages  162-168 

Section  43.  Period  of  the  Last  Hasmoneans  and  of  Herod  T 
(03-4  B.C.).  44.  Period  of  the  House  of  Herod  and  tlie 
Roman  Governors  (4  n.  C.-70  a.  n.).  45.  Period  from  the 
Clo.se  of  the  Jewish  War  to  the  Overthrow  of  Rar-Cochba 
(70  or  73-135  a.  d.). 


Xiv  CONTENTS 

PART  IV 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

XI 

LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND   THE  FOUR   GOSPELS 
Sections  46-48.     Pages  171-188 

Section  46.  Introduction  to  the  Life  of  Jesus.  47.  General 
Discussion  of  the  Life  of  Jesus.  48.  The  Gospels  as  Litera- 
ture. 

XII 

APOSTOLIC  AGE    (c.  30-100  a.  d.) 

Sections  49-51.     Pages  189-216 

Section  40.  Period  of  the  Rise  of  the  Church  and  its  Spread 
in  Syria  (c.  30-44  a.  d.).  50.  Period  of  Gentile  Missions 
(C.44-G4  A.  D.).    51.  Later  Apostolic  Age  (c.  64-100  a.  d.). 

APPENDIX 
Selected  BinLioGuAPHY.     Pages  219-228. 


INDEX    OF    BIBLICAL    PASSAGES 
Pages  229-233 


LIST    OF    MAPS 

The  Old  Testament  World Fronti'sjiiece 

Western  Asia  before  XVIIItli  Egyptian  Dynasty    .     .  Plate  I 
Western  Asia  under  XVIIIth  and   XlXth  Egyptian 

Dynasties „  I 

Palestine  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest »>  II 

Palestine  after  the  Conquest v  H 

Palestine  under  David „  II 

The  Divided  Kingdom »  II 

Western  Asia  at  the  time  of  the  Disruption    ....  „  III 

Assyrian  Empire  under  Shalmaneser  IT „  III 

Assyrian  Empire  at  end  of  8th  Century  b.  c.       ...  „  HI 

Assyrian  Empire  under  Ashurbanipal »  HI 

Western  Asia  in  the  Babylonian  Period,  5G0  b.  c.  .     .  „  IV 

Western  Asia  under  Darius,  SOO  b.  c ,,  IV 

The  Empire  of  Alexamler  the  Great,  323  b.  c.    .     .     .  „  TV 

Western  Asia  after  the  Battle  of  Tpsns,  301  r.  c.     .      .  „  IV 
Western    Asia   in   the  time  of    Antiochus    Epiphanes, 

17G-lfi4   15.  c „  V 

Jiidea  under  Judas  and  Jonathan,  101-1  12  B.  c.       .     .  j,  V 

Jiidca  under  Alexander  Jannaens,  104-78  b.  c.  .      .     .  „  V 

Kingdom  of  Ilerod  the  Great,  30-4  b.  c »  VI 

Palestine  under  Sons  of  Herod,  4  b.  c.-6  a.  d.    .     .     .  „  VI 

Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ »>  VI 

Palestine  under  Ilerod  Agrij)i)a,  44  a.  d »  VI 


INTRODUCTION 


INTRODUCTION 

§  1.   Scope  of  the  Study. 

1.    The  Study  as  History. 

Even  a  cursory  reading  of  the  Bible  shows  the  contact 
of  Israel  with  all  the  important  nations  of  antiquity, 
from  ancient  Egypt  to  the  Roman  Empire.  A  thorough 
study  of  Biblical  history  must  obviously  involve  an  ex- 
amination of  the  relations  of  Israel  with  the  great 
nations  whose  life  touched  hers  in  manifold  ways  dur- 
ing no  less  than  fourteen  centuries.  It  demands  also 
a  survey  of  the  still  more  ancient  Semitic  civilization 
out  of  which  Israel  sprang  and  from  which  she  inherited 
much  that  had  been  developing  for  several  thousand 
years  before  her  ancestors  first  entered  Palestine. 

Although  the  course  of  study  outlined  in  this  volume 
is  concerned  primarily  with  the  history  of  Israel  and  of 
early  Christianity  because  of  their  master  influence 
upon  later  civilization,  it  touches  upon  the  history  of 
ancient  Babylonia,  Egypt,  Plifcnicia,  Assyria,  the  Baby- 
lonia of  Nebuchadrezzar,  and  the  Persian,  Greek,  and 
Roman  empires.  Tlu;  student  of  the  Bible  must  make 
a  general  survey  of  tlie  growth  of  civilization  from  the 
dawn  of  history  until  Christianity  had  been  planted 
throughout  tlie  Gra3CO-Roman  world.  Such  an  approach 
to  Biljlical  history  has  become  possible  in  recent  years 
through  the  great  advances  made  in  the  understanding 


4  OUTLINES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

of  ancient  history,  notably  through  the  discovery  and 
decipherment  of  the  records  of  Egypt,  Babylonia,  and 

Assyria. 

2.    Tfie  Study  as  Literature. 

Out  of  the  life  of  ancient  Israel  and  of  early  Chris- 
tianity grew  those  writings  which  are  known  as  the 
sixty-six  books  of  the  Protestant  Bible.  The  thirty- 
nine  books  of  the  Old  Testament  constitute  the  canon 
approved  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  ;  the  Greek-speaking 
Jews  of  Alexandria  and  elsewhere  included  some  four- 
teen other  books  which  Protestants  now  call  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha.  The  twenty-seven  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  selected  by  the  gradual  agreement 
of  the  early  church,  have  been  adopted  as  the  second 
great  division  of  the  Scriptures  by  all  branches  of  the 
Christian  church. 

In  the  present  course  of  study  all  the  Biblical  books 
are  read,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  order  of  their 
writing,  and  in  connection  with  the  history  of  their 
times.  This  treatment  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the 
books  grew  up  in  closest  connection  with  human  life, 
and  were  often  addressed,  in  the  first  instance,  to  vital 
needs  occasioned  by  the  vicissitudes  of  the  nation.  It 
further  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  experiences  of  the 
various  writers  were  often  the  means  of  their  provi- 
dential guidance  into  the  truths  to  which  they  gave  ex- 
pression. This  method  of  study  enables  the  books  to 
throw  their  light  on  the  conditions  out  of  which  they 
arose  and  to  which  tliey  were  addressed.  On  the  other 
hand  it  frequently  makes  clear  the  meaning  of  other- 
wise obscure  writings,  through  the  liglit  reflected  from 
the  conditions  of  the  times. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Treating  the  Biblical  books  as  literary  products  of 
the  successive  ages  of  Israel's  history  tends  also  to 
make  prominent  their  rich  and  varied  character  as  the 
culled  fruit  of  a  nation's  literature.  It  leads  to  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  great  variety  of  literary  forms,  both 
of  prose  and  poetry,  that  they  exhibit.  Without  some 
recognition  of  these  distinctive  forms,  the  meaning  of 
the  writings  can  hardly  be  rightly  apprehended.  In 
this  course,  accordingly,  the  Biblical  books  are  studied 
from  both  the  historical  and  the  literary  points  of  view. 
Such  a  study  should  add  to  a  trustworthy  interpreta- 
tion of  these  writings  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the 
life  out  of  which  they  grew  and  a  personal  fellowship 
with  the  noble  company  of  prophets  and  apostles, 
whose  spirit  is  forever  embodied  in  them. 

A  great  literature  is  such  because  it  worthily  ex- 
presses eternal  truth.  The  study  of  historical  settings 
and  of  literary  expression  must  ever  be  subsidiary  to 
the  apprehension  of  the  message.  The  dominant  value 
of  the  historical  and  literary  studj-  of  the  Bible  is  that 
it  naturally  introduces  the  student  to  the  Biblical  point 
of  view  in  regard  to  God  and  man  and  the  universe. 
Some  results  of  such  study  have  been  happily  expressed 
by  one  who  is  primarily  a  student  of  general  history  : 
"  In  the  light  thus  obtained  the  sacred  text  has  been 
transformed ;  out  of  the  old  chaos  of  hopelessly  con- 
flicting statements  in  religion  and  morals  has  come,  in 
obedience  to  this  new  conception  of  development,  the 
idea  of  a  sacred  literature  which  mirrors  the  most 
striking  evolution  of  morals  and  religion  in  the  history 
of  our  race."  ^     If  literature  be  defincsd  as  "  the  lastinjr 

1  Anilrew  1).  ^Vllite,  "  History  of  Wurfure  of  Science  with  Tlieol- 
ogy,"  vol.  ii.  p.  394. 


6  OUTLINES   OF  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE 

expression  in  words  of  the  meaning  of  life,"  ^  then  an 
appreciative  study  of  the  Bible  from  the  literary  point 
of  view  will  reveal  this  collection  of  books  as  supreme 
literature,  expressing  the  meaning  of  life  in  terms  of 
its  deepest  and  most  permanent  needs,  hopes,  purposes, 
and  relationships. 

A  historical  study  of  Biblical  literature  must  not 
fail  to  include  some  survey  of  all  the  significant  Jewish 
writings  composed  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  70 
A.  D.  An  acquaintance  with  these  is  essential  to  an 
understanding  of  later  Judaism  and  early  Christianity. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  and 
of  other  Jewish  writings  of  the  period  from  200  B.  c.  to 
70  A.  D,  are  included  in  this  volume. 

§  2.   General  Plan  op  the  Study. 

1.    The  Four  Farts. 

The  entire  course  is  divided  into  four  parts,  as 
follows : 

Hebrew  History  and  Literature. 
Early  Jewish  History  and  Literature. 
Later  Jewish  History  and  Literature. 
Early  Christian  History  and  Literature. 

The  division  between  Parts  one  and  two  is  made 
by  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  58G  b.  c,  when  the 
flower  of  the  nation  was  carried  into  exile.  This  marks 
the  close  of  Hebrew  history.  Part  two  includes  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  community  in  its  successive  sub- 
jection to  Babylonia,  Persia,  and  Greece  for  more  than 
four  hundred  years.  Part  three  opens  with  the  success- 
ful revolt  of  the  Maccabeans,  beginning  in  168  b.  c.,and 

1  Barrett  Wendell,  "  A  Literary  History  of  America." 


INTRODUCTION  7 

closes  with  the  last  hopeless  rebellion  of  the  Jews 
against  Rome,  terminating  in  135  a.  d.  Chronologi- 
cally Part  four  is  included  within  Part  three.  The 
founding  and  development  of  early  Christianity  clearly 
demands  a  treatment  separate  from  that  of  later 
Judaism. 

2.  Method  of  Studying  the  History. 

In  the  study  of  the  history,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
earliest  records,  whether  historical  narratives,  contem- 
porary inscriptions,  or  prophetic  addresses,  are  analyzed, 
dated,  and  read.  One  who  has  thus  become  familiar 
with  the  principal  sources  for  the  history  of  a  period  is 
prepared  to  read  critically  the  discussions  in  modern 
historical  treatises.  In  connection  with  reading  the 
history,  the  outline  aims  to  help  the  student  to  note  its 
salient  points  and  to  organize  the  material.  As  indi- 
cated in  paragraph  one  the  history  is  treated  in  its 
broad  international  relationships  ;  the  influences  due  to 
the  nation's  geographical  position  and  to  the  character 
and  ambition  of  her  neighbors  are  emphasized. 

3.  Combination  of  History  and  Literature. 

In  connection  with  each  period,  the  writings  of  the 
time  are  considered  both  as  sources  and  as  literature. 
By  a  careful  analysis  of  the  material  of  study  under  the 
captions  of  (1)  sources,  (2)  discussion  of  the  history, 
and  (3)  literature  of  the  time,  each  point  of  view  is 
kei)t  distinct,  and  yet  the  close  connection  between  the 
liistory  and  the  literature  is  maintained  so  that  the 
Biblical  revelation,  which  came  both  in  life  and  word, 
is  seen  as  an  organic  whole. 


8  outlines  of  biblical  literature 

§  3.   Bibliography. 

The  present  volume  forms  an  integral  part  of  the 
Historical  Series  for  Bible  Students,  to  the  other  vol- 
umes of  which  constant  reference  is  made.  In  con- 
nection with  Parts  one  and  two  the  student  should 
have  at  hand  Kent's  "  History  of  the  Hebrew  People  " 
and  "  History  of  the  Jewish  People "  or  some  other 
recent  critical  history  such  as  that  of  G.  W.  Wade, 
H.  P.  Smith,  or  R.  Kittel  (see  Appendix).  One  should 
also  have  access  to  recent  histories  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Egyptians.  Those  of  Goodspeed  and  Breasted  in 
the  Historical  Series  are  reliable  and  convenient.  More 
complete  treatises  are  Rogers,  "  History  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,"  and  Breasted,  "  History  of  Egypt."  The 
short  history  of  Egypt  by  Newberry  and  Garstang  is 
excellent  for  reference.  For  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian, 
and  Babylonian  inscriptions  bearing  upon  Old  Testa- 
ment history,  the  most  convenient  manual  in  English 
is  that  of  Price.  The  student  who  reads  German 
may  consult  the  comprehensive  "  Kcilinschriftliche 
Bibliothek  "  edited  by  Schrader,  McCurdy's  "  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments"  is  also  helpful.  In 
reading  the  Old  Testament  books  as  historical  sources 
the  volumes  of  Kent's  "  Student's  Old  Testament"  will 
be  of  great  assistance.  The  Biblical  material  should 
always  be  read  from  these  volumes  or  from  the  Revised 
Version,  preferably  the  American  Standard  edition. 
In  connection  with  Part  three  the  student  should  have 
at  hand  Riggs'  "  History  of  the  Jewish  People "  or 
Schiirer's  "  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time 
of  Christ."  In  this  part  of  the  course  a  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  (Revised  Version)  will 
be  needed.     For  thorough  work,  translations  of  other 


INTRODUCTION  9 

Jewish  literature  of  tlie  age  should  he  accessible. 
Reference  is  made  to  these  in  their  proper  connection. 
In  the  study  of  Part  four  Rhees'  "  Life  of  Jesus  "  or 
some  other  recent  historical  treatment  of  the  Life  will 
be  necessary.  References  to  several  of  the  best  are 
given  in  the  text.  A  critical  history  of  the  apostolic 
age  will  also  be  needed.  Those  of  Bartlet  and  Yotaw 
are  recommended  ;  the  works  of  McGiffert  and  Weiz- 
siicker  are  more  thorough  treatises. 

For  the  entire  course  of  study  Hastings'  "  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  "  will  be  of  constant  service.  It  is  more 
uniformly  useful  for  the  general  student  than  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Biblica "  to  which  frequent  reference  is 
made.  The  "  Biblical  Introduction  "  of  Bennett  and 
Adeney  covers  the  entire  Bible  and  is  very  helpful  for 
the  student.  References  to  other  standard  Old  and 
New  Testament  Introductions  are  everywliere  made. 
Other  books  which  should  be  consulted,  if  possible,  are 
indicated  in  their  appropriate  connections.  A  complete 
list  of  these  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 

The  references  are  limited  to  books  available  in 
English  and  within  the  range  of  the  average  Biblical 
student.  Technical  bibliographies  are  to  be  found  in 
many  of  tlie  works  referred  to.  It  has  therefore 
seemed  inadvisable  to  burden  these  pages  with  reference- 
lists  intended  to  be  exhaustive. 


PART    I 
HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 


EARLY  SEMITIC   HISTORY 

§  4.  Importance  of  the  Ancient  Semites  in  the 
History  of  Civilization. 

To  southwestern  Asia,  the  home  of  the  Semites, 
where  history  throws  its  dawning  light  upon  human 
society,  we  can  trace  the  origin  of  much  that  is  most 
vital  in  civilization.  Thence  came  three  of  the  world's 
most  influential  religions,  the  beginnings  of  practical 
science,  and  the  first  successful  example  of  empire 
building.^  In  spite  of  the  great  antiquity  of  civiliza- 
tion in  tlie  Nile  valley,  it  is  now  recognized  that  "  the 
Euphrates  had  long  nurtured  a  civilization  which  had 
advanced  far,  before  that  of  Egypt  awoke  "^  and  that 
the  social  development  of  the  newer  region  was  greatly 
influenced  by  that  of  the  older  life  in  Asia.  Both  the 
written  language  and  the  geographical  names  of  ancient 
Canaan  bear  clear  testimony  to  the  fact  that  this  region, 
too,  had  felt  the  influence  of  the  earlv  Bal)vl()nian  life 
in  deepest  measure.  Some  of  the  most  vital  elements 
of  this  early  culture  were  spread  farther  still,  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  the  Phoenician  traders. 

The  traditions  of  early  Israel  trace  the  origin  of  her 
race  to  the  fruitful  valley  of  the  Euphrates.     When 

1  McCurdy,  "  History,  Propliocy,  and  tlic  Monumctits,"  i,  p.  6. 

2  Newberry  aud  Garstiiug,  "  Short  History  of  Aucient  Egypt,"  p,  11. 


14  HEBREW  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

Israel's  ancestors  came  into  Canaan,  they  settled  in 
the  midst  of  a  society  which  had  likewise  been  de- 
veloped under  influences  that  came  from  the  vigor- 
ous, expanding  life  of  Babylonia.  In  the  study  of 
Hebrew  history,  accordingly,  a  general  knowledge  of 
the  earlier  life  of  the  Euphrates  valley  and  of  its  in- 
fluence upon  pre-Israelite  Canaan  is  fundamental. 
"Without  this  knowledge,  the  history  and  writings  of 
the  Hebrews  cannot  be  rightly  apprehended  and  inter- 
preted. In  the  present  outlines  the  first  section  is 
devoted  to  early  Semitic  history. 

§  5.   Geography  of  the  Ancient  Semitic  World. 

In  speaking  of  the  importance  of  southwestern  Asia, 
two  divisions  have  been  especially  mentioned,  —  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates,  and  Canaan.  These  are  the 
two  parts  of  the  region  which  chiefly  concern  one  in 
securing  the  necessary  background  for  a  study  of 
Hebrew  origins.  In  examining  a  map  of  the  ancient 
oriental  world,i  one  will  observe  a  crescent-shaped  ter- 
ritory extending  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt,  bounded,  on  the  concave  side,  by  the  Aralnan 
desert,  and  on  the  longer,  convex  side,  by  chains  of 
mountains  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

The  principal  districts  to  be  noted  in  this  region  are 
Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Aram  (lying  between 
the  Euphrates  and  Canaan,  or  including  also  a  portion 
of  the  country  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates), 
Phoenicia,  and  Canaan.  The  cities  of  Babylon,  Nine- 
veh, Hamath,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Damascus,  and  Jerusalem 
should  be  identified  at  the  outset,  although  they  do  not 
appear  in  the  history  of  the  earliest  times.     The  situ- 

^  See  frontispiece. 


EARLY  SEMITIC  HISTORY  15 

ation  of  Carchemisli,  wliere  a  ford  of  the  Euphrates 
made  the  principal  connection  between  the  halves  of 
the  crescent,  should  also  be  noted.  Here  caravans  in 
peace  and  armies  in  war,  from  Assyria  and  Babylonia, 
crossed  on  their  route  to  Canaan  or  Egypt.  It  thus 
came  about  that  those  from  the  far  east  approached 
Canaan  from  the  north  and  not  directly  across  the 
desert.  Indeed,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Palestinian, 
"  the  children  of  the  East "  were  nomads  of  the  neidi- 
boring  Arabian  desert,  while  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian 
was  one  from  the  north. 

Aside  from  the  region  described  above,  the  ancient 
Semites  inhabited  Arabia,  with  the  fertile  district  of 
Saba  at  its  southwestern  extremity,  and  Ethiopia, 
across  the  Red  Sea  in  Africa.  While  not  properly 
Semitic  territory,  the  lands  of  Elam,  Media  (Madai), 
and  Egypt  should  be  included  in  any  survey  of  the 
ancient  Semitic  world. 

The  map  at  the  beginning  of  this  volume  should  be 
carefully  studied  and  the  following  references  may 
profitably  be  read  :  JMcCurdy,  "  History,  Propliocy, 
and  the  Monuments,"  I.,  §  17  ;  Goodspeed,  "  History  of 
Babylonians  Jind  Assyrians,"  pages  3-13  (for  eastern 
portion)  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Historical  Geography  of  Holy 
Land,"  pages  6-13  (for  western  portion  of  northern 
crescent)  ;  "  Enc.  Biblica,"  II.,  cols.  1087-1003.  In 
reading,  note :  (1)  the  extent  of  the  crescent-shaped 
territory ;  (2)  the  general  character  of  the  land  ; 
(3)  the  significance  of  the  two  great  rivers ;  (4)  the 
various  names  of  the  chief  divisions  of  the  land  ;  (5)  the 
natural  connections  of  its  different  parts  with  each 
other  and  with  other  ancient  seats  of  civilization. 


16  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

§  6.   The  Semitic  Peoples. 

The  ancient  Semites  may,  perhaps,  be  best  divided 
into  two  principal  groups,  the  Aramaeans  and  Arabs. 
Of  these,  the  first  includes  the  Babylonians  and  Assyr- 
ians, the  Mesopotamian  and  Syrian  Aramceans,  the 
Phoenicians  and  Canaanites,  and  the  Hebrews,  Moab- 
ites,  Ammonites,  and  Edomites.  The  Arabs  may 
conveniently  be  divided  into  those  of  northern  and 
central  Arabia,  those  of  southern  Arabia,  and  the 
African  Arabs  of  Abyssinia.  In  the  northern  division 
are  to  be  reckoned  the  Amalekites,  Midianites,  and 
various  other  tribes  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 
According  to  this  division  the  grouping  may  be 
represented  as  follows  : 

Babylonians  and  Assyrians, 

Mesopotamian  and  Svrian  Aramaeans, 

Aramaeans  -'     .       .  .  i  /-i    "      •<. 

Phoenicians  and  Canaanites, 

^Hebrews,  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites. 

I  Northern  Arabs, 
Arabs  \  Southern  Arabs, 

(^African  Arabs. 
Whence  the  Semitic  race  originally  migrated  is  an 
unsettled  question,  but  it  is  generally  agreed  that 
Arabia  was  the  centre  from  which  it  spread  directly 
into  the  regions  indicated  above.  At  intervals,  through- 
out historic  times,  the  tendency  to  pour  out  of  Arabia 
into  the  fertile  plains  and  valleys  bordering  the  desert 
plateau  has  manifested  itself  with  resistless  force. 

At  least  one  or  two  of  the  following  references  may 
profitably  be  read  :  Hastings,  "  Pict.  Bib.,"  Extra  Vol., 
pages  72-83  ;  McCurdy,  "  History,  Prophecy,  and  the 
Monuments,"  I.,  §§  17-21,  or  Hast.  "Diet.  Bib.,"  Extra 


EARLY  SEMITIC  HISTORY  17 

Vol.,  pages  83-91;  Kent,  "United  Kingdom,"  §26; 
Barton,  "  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins,"  ch.  i. ;  Keane, 
"  Ethnology,"  pages  391-395.  In  reading,  note  :  (1) 
the  different  classifications  that  may  be  adopted  ;  (2) 
the  varions  theories  as  to  the  cradle  of  the  Semites  ; 
(8)  the  probable  course  of  migration  from  Arabia  into 
the  more  fertile  bordering  territory ;  (4)  the  probable 
order  of  the  migrations  and  settlements  of  the  various 
groups  of  Aramaean  Semites. 

§  7.  Kecords  of  Earliest  Semitic  Civilization. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  labors  of  explor- 
ers in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  have 
unearthed  many  and  varied  relics  and  records  of  the 
most  ancient  civilization  known  to  man.  The  discov- 
eries include  architectural  remains  of  palaces,  temples, 
towers,  and  walls.  The  vast  structures  of  Nineveh, 
Babylon,  and  still  more  ancient  seats  of  power  have 
been  brought  to  view.  Pottery,  sculptures,  royal  in- 
scriptions, business  archives,  even  libraries,  buried  for 
millenniums,  have  all  borne  their  testimony  to  the 
political,  social,  intellectual,  and  religious  life  of  the 
peoples  who  inhabited  these  regions  ages  before  Greece 
and  Rome  come  into  the  light  of  history.  The  narra- 
tive of  the  discovery  and  decipherment  of  these  records 
is  the  story  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  many  great 
achievements  of  scholarship  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

At  least  one  of  the  following  references  should  be 
read :  Goodspced,  "  History  of  Babs.  and  Assyrs.," 
pages  14-36 ;  Jastrow,  "  Religion  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,""  pages  6-1 9  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  L,  pages 
220-223  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  423-429 ;  Price,  "  Mon- 
uments and  0.  T,"    chs.  iv.,  v;  Rogers,   "History  of 


18  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Babylonia  and  Assyria,"  I.,  pages  84-199,  225-253; 
Hilprecht,  "Explorations  in  Bible  Lands,"  pages 
7-579;  Kent,  "Discovery  and  Decipherment  of  An- 
cient Inscriptions  "  (in  preparation).     In  reading,  note  : 

(1)  how  largely  the  knowledge  of  the  sites,  language, 
and  civilization  of   ancient  Babylonia  had  been   lost ; 

(2)  early  efforts  at  exploration  ;  (3)  great  results  that 
attended  the  explorations  of  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ;  (4)  work  done  since  1873 ;  (5)  the  early  clues 
for  deciphering  the  language ;  (6)  striking  features  of 
the  written  records;  (7)  nature  and  variety  of  the 
records  of  this  ancient  civilization. 

§  8.   Ancient  Babylonia  until  about  1200  b.  c. 
1.    General  Data. 

(1)    Situation,  Area,  and  Fertility. 

From  the  headwaters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  a  distance  of  about  800  miles.  The 
land  included  between  the  two  rivers  divides  itself 
naturally  into  two  parts.  The  northern  one  of  these, 
commonly  known  by  the  Greek  name  of  Mesopotamia, 
is  a  great  plain  of  limestone  and  selenite,  in  area  al- 
most equal  to  England.  The  northern  and  western 
portions  of  this  plain  are  broken  by  mountains  and  are 
of  a  fertile  character,  as  is  also  that  part  of  Assyria 
which  lies  east  of  the  Tigris,  while  the  lower  portion 
of  Mesopotamia  is  much  more  barren.  The  southern 
of  the  two  principal  parts,  commonly  styled  Babylonia, 
is  of  alluvial  character,  and  in  ancient  times  was 
about  equal  in  area  to  the  combined  territory  of  Holland 
and  Belgium  or  to  the  southern  half  of  Louisiana,  the 
latter  a  re2;ion  to  which  it  has  been  likened  in  character. 
On  the  east  of  the  Tigris,  the  Babylonian  plain  stretches 


EARLY   SEMITIC   HISTORY  19 

away  for  a  distance  of  some  thirty  to  fifty  miles,  to  the 
mountains  of  Ehim.  On  the  west  it  merges  into 
the  Arabian  desert,  twenty  or  thirty  miles  from  the 
Euphrates,  where  the  low  hills  check  the  overflow  of 
the  river.  The  fertility  of  ancient  Babylonia  led  to 
astounding  reports  of  productiveness.^ 

Some  one  of  the  following  references  may  profitably 
be  read  for  fuller  information  :  Goodspeed,  "  Hist.  Babs. 
and  Assyrs.,"  ch.  i.  ;  Jastrow,  "  Religion  of  Bal)y- 
lonia  and  Assyria,"  pages  26-80 ;  Rogers,  "  Hist.  Bab. 
and  Assyr.,"  I.,  pages  266-301  ;  McCurdy,  "  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,"  I.,  §§  71-73,  86; 
"Enc.  Bib.^^  I.,  cols.  350,  420-421.  Notice:  (1)  the 
natural  boundaries  of  the  country  as  a  whole,  with  the 
absence  of  any  natural  division  between  the  districts  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria;  (2)  distinguishing  physical 
characteristics  of  Mesopotamia  and  of  Babylonia ;  (3) 
influence  of  rivers  and  canals  ;  (4)  character  of  climate  ; 
(5)  fertility  and  products  of  the  soil ;  (6)  limitations  in 
building  material ;  (7)  the  chief  cities  of  Babylonia 
aud  Assyria. 

(2)    Composite  Character  of  the  Population. 

It  is  an  unsettled  question  whether  the  Semites, 
when  they  entered  Babylonia,  found  a  race  already 
living  in  the  region,  from  which  they  adopted  the  arts 
of  civilization,  or  whether  Semitic  and  other  races  were 
already  mingled  together  there  at  the  earliest  period 
known  to  us.  Two  or  three  of  the  following  discus- 
sions of  the  question  should  be  read.  In  favor  of  the 
former  view :  Sayce,  "  Babylonians  aud  Assyrians," 
pages    1-6;    Rogers,  "Hist,   of  Bab.   and   Assyr.,"  I., 

1  See  Herodotus,  I.  193. 


20  HEBREW  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

pages  302-311 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  214, 
215.  In  favor  of  the  latter  view  :  Jastrow,  "  Religion 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,"  pages  32-34  ;  ^  McCurdy, 
"  History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,"  II.,  §§  82, 
83  ;  Goodspeed,  "  Hist,  of  Babs.  and  Assyrs.,"  §§  26, 
51  (seems  to  incline  toward  latter  view). 

2.    Dawn  of  History  in  Babylonia  (before  4000  b.  c). 

(1)  Form  of  Government. 

The  earliest  type  of  government  discernible  in  an- 
cient Babylonia  is  the  city  state.  There  were  two 
groups  of  such  states.  The  southern  of  these  consisted 
of  Eridu,  Lagash  (Shirpurla),  Ur,  Larsa,  Uruk  (Erech), 
and  Isin ;  the  northern,  of  Agade,  Sippar,  Nippur, 
Kutha,  and,  at  a  later  date,  Babylon.  Consult  frontis- 
piece map  in  Goodspeed,  "  Hist.  Babs.  and  Assyrs." 
Reference  may  also  be  made  to  Rogers,  "  Hist.  Bab. 
and  Assyr.,"  I.  pages  289-296. 

(2)  Duration  of  First  Historic  Period. 

Most  students  of  Babylonian  history  are  agreed  that 
our  knowledge  of  it  extends  back  at  least  as  far  as 
4500  or  5000  B.  c,  and  that  the  culture  then  existing 
testifies  to  a  long  period  of  development  far  removed 
from  anything  that  could  be  styled  a  state  of  savagery. 
On  the  material  side  this  civilization  had  reached  the 
agricultural  stage,  with  the  construction  of  irrigating 
canals  and  cities.  On  the  intellectual  side,  language 
had  been  reduced  to  a  written  form,  with  all  that  this 
means  for  indefinite  possibilities  of   further  progress. 

1  See  also  his  article  in  "Am.  Journal  Semit.  Languages,"  xxii.  No.  2. 
For  what  seems  a  concession  on  tlie  part  of  Professor  Jastrow  to  the 
other  view,  see  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext.  Vol.,  p.  73a, 


EARLY   SEMITIC   HISTORY  21 

On  the  religious  side,  there  was  already  developed  an 
organized  priesthood  with  temples. 

Read  Goodspeed,  "  Hist.  Babs.  and  Assyrs.,"  pages 
49-56,  or  Rogers,  ''  Hist.  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  pages 
3-19-359. 

3.    Period  of  Expansion  and  Unification  about  (4000- 
2300  B.  c). 

Physical  needs  and  ambition  for  power  naturally  led 
the  city  states  of  ancient  Babylonia  to  acts  of  aggres- 
sion against  their  neighbors,  and,  in  addition  to  such 
obvious  motives,  a  strong  religious  impulse  tended  in 
the  same  direction.  Each  state  had  its  local  deity, 
whose  glory  was  thought  to  be  furthered  by  conquests 
that  showed  his  superiority  to  the  gods  of  otl)cr  cities, 
the  gods  of  conquered  districts  becoming  subject  to  the 
deity  of  the  victorious  city. 

The  early  struggles  for  supremacy  seem  to  have  been 
confined  to  the  lower  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphra- 
tes ;  but  about  4000  b.  c.  a  mighty  conqueror,  Lugal- 
zaggisi  of  Uruk,  made  expeditions  to  the  Mediterranean 
and  to  the  mountains  at  the  north  of  Mesopotamia. 
He  styled  himself  "  King  of  Uruk,"  "  King  of  the 
Totality."  About  3800  b.  c.  most  students  of  Babylon- 
ian history  date  the  famous  reign  of  Sargon  I.  This 
ruler  and  his  son,  who  had  their  seat  of  government  in 
Agade,  carried  their  arms  into  Armenia,  Elam,  Arabia, 
and  to  the  coast  of  the  Meditcrrauean.  Later  the  rule 
shifts  to  the  south,  with  Shirpurla  the  controlling 
centre  for  a  considerable  period.  By  about  3000  b.  c, 
Ur  had  made  itself  dominant.  Her  kings  seem  to 
have  ruled  united  Babylonia.  In  Ijoth  north  and  south 
they  built  temples  and  they  assumed  the  title  "  King  of 


22  HEBREW  HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

Simmer  and  Akkad "  (northern   and  southern   Babj- 
lonia).     From  about  2800  to  2500  b,  c,  Ur  was  again 
the  seat  of  power,  with   its  rulers  calling  themselves 
"  King  of  the  Four  Regions."     Contract  tablets,  dated 
from  events  in  these  reigns,  testify  to  campaigns  in 
Aram,  Arabia,  and  Elam.     The  sovereignty  of  Ur  was 
followed  by  a  period  of  strife  between  different  centres, 
but  about  2400  b.  c.  a  dynasty  arose  at  the  city  of 
Babylon  which  was  destined,  after  a  few  generations, 
to  make  that  city  the  centre  of  power  and  culture  for 
all  this  region.     Five  kings,  however,  ruled  in  this  new 
line,  before  a  monarch  of  great  significance  appeared. 
In  the  meantime  Larsa  was  the  seat  of  another  dynasty 
of   which   the    second   king   called  himself  "  King  of 
Shumer  and  Akkad  "  ;  and  then  Elam,  so  often  invaded 
from  the  plain  of  Babylonia,  attacked  in  turn.     Uruk 
and   Larsa   had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  shock,  and 
Larsa  became  a  centre  of  Elamite  power.     The  Elam- 
ite  rule  humbled  the  aspiring  cities  of  the  south  and 
terminated  the  long  period  of  expansion  and  unification 
which  had  extended  over  more  than  a  millennium  and 
a  half  and  had  spread  the  influence  of  the  Euphratean 
culture  to  the  Mediterranean. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  history,  so  briefly  summa- 
rized above,  reference  should  be  made  to  Goodspeed, 
"History  of  Babs.  and  Assyrs.,"  pages  57-70,  or 
Rogers,  "Hist,  of  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  I.,  pages  361- 
385.  Short  accounts  may  be  found  in  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  L,  pages  224-226,  and  "  Enc.  Bib.,"'  L,  cols. 
443-444. 


EARLY   SEMITIC   HISTORY  23 

4.   First  Dijnastij  at  Bah //Ion  (about  2400-2100  b.  c). 

The  city  of  Babylon  itself  did  not  appear  as  a  centre 
of  iufiiience  until  the  history  of  the  region  which  we 
know  as  Babylonia  was  already  more  than  two  thousand 
years  old.  The  long  period  of  expansion  and  unifica- 
tion terminated  at  the  time  when  the  Elamites  had 
overrun  the  south,  and  Babylon  had  appeared  in  history 
as  a  seat  of  government  in  the  north.  It  was  about 
a  century  later  that  the  first  important  ruler,  the  sixth 
of  the  line,  came  to  the  throne  of  Babylon.  This  great 
monarch,  Hammurabi,  has  left  records  of  his  enlightened 
efforts  for  the  agricultural  development  of  the  land, 
and  a  great  law  code,  cut  in  the  enduring  rock,  which 
carries  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  jurisprudence 
back  a  thousand  years  before  the  age  of  Moses.  As 
yet  no  inscription  has  been  discovered  giving  the  de- 
tails of  his  wars ;  but  it  is  evident  that  he  destroyed  the 
Elamite  power  in  Babylonia,  and  his  assumption  of  the 
ancient  titles  "  King  of  Shumer  and  Akkad,"  "  King 
of  the  Four  Quarters  of  tlic  World,"  seems  to  indicate 
that  his  power  extended  far.  In  Larsa  and  Sippar  he 
erected  temples  to  the  sun-god,  and  at  Babylon  and 
Eorsippa  he  enlarged  those  already  standing.  His 
great  canal  running  down  through  the  heart  of  Baby- 
lonia made  the  bordering  territory  fertile ;  and  the 
granary  built  at  Babylon  stored  the  increased  crops 
of  grain.  It  may  be  that  Lugalzaggisi  and  Sargon  I. 
exceeded  Hammural)i  in  the  extent  of  their  sway,  but 
Hammurabi  made  Babylon  the  centre  of  culture  for 
southwestern  Asia  during  millenniums.  Assyria,  in 
time,  conquered  her,  but  could  only  borrow  and  imitate 
her  civilization.     When  political  power  rcturtied  for  a 


24  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

brief  period  to  Babylon,  seventeen  hundred  years  after 
Hammurabi,  the  great  rulers  Nabopolassar  and  Ne- 
buchadrezzar imitated  his  inscriptions.  Hammurabi's 
son  proved  an  efficient  ruler,  and  the  dynasty  continued 
down  to  about  2100  b.  c. 

For  a  fuller  account  of  this  dynasty  reference  should 
be  made  to  Goodspeed,  "  History  of  Babs.  and  Assyrs., 
pages  107-119,  or  Rogers,  "  Hist.  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  I., 
pages  386-395.  A  short  account  may  be  found  in 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib."  I.,  pages  226-227,  or  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  444-445.  The  great  code  of  Hammu- 
rabi has  been  discovered,  translated,  and  published 
since  the  writing  of  all  the  above  accounts.  It  is  an 
invaluable  document,  throwing  light  upon  all  phases 
of  the  social  organization  of  ancient  Babylonia,  and  is 
of  especial  interest  to  the  Biblical  student,  because  of 
its  close  parallels  with  many  laws  of  the  later  Old 
Testament  legislation.  For  a  translation  of  this  code, 
reference  may  be  made  to  :  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  "  Bab. 
and  Assyr.  Laws,  Contracts,  and  Letters,"  pages  44-68, 
or  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext.  Vol. ,  pages  599-608  ; 
Harper,  "  The  Code  of  Hammurabi."  For  information 
concerning  the  code,  see  :  Hast.,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext. 
Vol.,  pages  584-599,  608-612;  "Biblical  World," 
Mar.  1903,  Dec.  1904 ;  Johns,  "  Laws,  Contracts,  and 
Letters,"  pages  4-6. 

5.    Second  and  Tliird  Dynasties  at  Babylon  and  Rise 
of  Assyria  (about  2100-1200  B.C.). 

The  dynasty  which  followed  that  of  Hammurabi 
lasted,  probably,  about  three  hundred  years.  The 
later  Babylonian  king  list  gives  the  names  of  eleven 
rulers,  but   no   contemporary  inscriptions   have    been 


EARLY   SEMITIC    HISTORY  25 

found.  The  age  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of 
peace. 

The  third  dynasty,  commonly  known  as  the  Kassite, 
was  of  foreign  origin.  The  Kaslius,  or  Kassites,  came 
down  from  the  mountains  north  of  Elam  and  seem  to 
liave  gained  a  foothold  in  southern  Babylonia  during 
the  later  years  of  the  second  dynasty.  The  king  list 
gives  the  number  of  successive  Kassite  rulers  as  thirty- 
six  and  the  dynasty  must  have  dominated  Babylonia  for 
full  five  hundred  years.  The  beginning  of  this  foreign 
rule  marked,  it  is  thought,  a  retrogression  in  civiliza- 
tion, but,  in  time,  the  vital  influences  of  Babylonian 
culture  made  themselves  felt  once  more.  An  inscrip- 
tion, preserved  from  the  central  portion  of  this  long 
dynasty,  shows  that  the  ruler  then  on  the  throne  con- 
trolled the  regions  of  the  middle  and  upper  Tigris  and 
the  slopes  of  the  eastern  mountains. 

By  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c,  a 
new  Semitic  power  appeared,  pushing  from  its  centre 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris  southwestward 
toward  the  northern  boundary  of  Babj^lonia  proper. 
For  this  period  of  history,  the  Tel-el-Amarna  tablets, 
found  in  Egypt  in  1887,  lift  the  curtain  high  and  show 
the  conditions  of  the  times  as  involving  international 
diplomacy  on  a  wide  scale.  Egypt  had  now  entered 
upon  a  career  of  expansion.  She  had  won  the  control 
of  Palestine  and  Syria  and  secured  a  monopoly  of  trade. 
The  Babylonian  infiuence,  however,  had  left  such  a 
strong  impress  that  even  the  local  Egyptian  governors 
of  Palestine  reported  to  the  Pharaoh  in  tlic  writing  and 
language  of  Babylonia,  which  was  also  the  instrument 
of  diplomatic  correspondence  between  Babylonia  and 
Egypt. 


26  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

By  1400  B.  c.  Babylon  and  Assyria  were  face  to  face, 
disputing  over  the  boundary  between  them.  A  mar- 
riage alliance  in  the  royal  families  served  to  secure 
temporary  peace,  but  wars  broke  out  later,  and,  soon 
after  1300,  an  Assyrian  king  was  actually  master  of 
Babylon  for  several  years.  When  he  was  expelled,  the 
Babylonians  gained  territory  from  Assyria,  and,  not  far 
from  1200  b.  c,  they  confined  Assyria  to  her  original 
narrow  territory.  Soon  the  Assyrians  won  back  some 
cities  in  the  disputed  territory  between  the  two  centres, 
and  with  the  next  Kassite  king  the  long  dynasty 
closed. 

For  a  fuller  account  of  the  Kassite  period  reference 
should  be  made  to  Goodspeed,  "  History  of  Babs.  and 
Assyrs.,"  pages  121-154,  or  Rogers,  "  Hist,  of  Bab. 
and  Assyr.,"  I.,  pages  395-424.  Short  accounts  may 
be  found  in  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  227,  and 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  446-447.  For  information  as 
to  the  Tel-el-Amarna  tablets  see:  Breasted,  "Hist. 
Egypt,"  pages  332-337,  382-389,  393  ;  Price,  "  Mons. 
and  0.  T.,"  pages  111-112. 

§  9.   Ancient   Syria   and   Palestine   until   about 
1200  B.  c. 
1.    Bahyloyiian  Dominance  (about  4000-1700  b.  c). 

It  has  already  been  seen  (§  8,  3)  that,  as  far  back  as 
4000  B.  c,  expeditions  were  made  from  Babylonia  to 
the  Mediterranean  coast.  Nothing  is  known,  however, 
of  the  details  of  history  in  Syria  and  Palestine  till  a 
time  almost  twenty-five  hundred  years  later,  yet  subse- 
quent conditions  bear  indubitable  testimony  to  the 
duration  and  depth  of  the  Babylonian  influence  on  the 
land.     The  later  use  of  Babylonian  language  and  writ- 


EARLY   SEMITIC   HISTORY  27 

ing,  already  referred  to,  names  of  places,  religion,  tra- 
ditions, and  art,  all  testify  to  the  earlier  Babylonian 
influence,  long  after  Babylon's  political  power  had  re- 
ceded from  the  land. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  Babylonian  influence  see ; 
Paton,  "  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine,"  pages  49-55 ; 
Maspero,  "  Struggle  of  Nations,"  pages  14-19  ;  Breasted, 
"  Hist,  of  Egypt,"  pages  258-262. 

2.   Egyptian  Dominance  (about  1550-1200  b.  c). 

About  1550  B.  c,  while  the  Kassites  ruled  Babylon 
and  a  century  before  they  came  into  contact  with  the 
rising  power  of  Assyria,  Palestine  came  under  the 
sway  of  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  monarchy  was  already 
ancient  at  this  time,  but  its  earlier  history  had  showed 
no  such  tendency  to  expansion  as  characterized  early 
Babylonia.  For  a  considerable  period  prior  to  1600 
B.  C.  Egypt  fell  under  a  foreign  dynasty  called  the 
Hyksos.  After  that  date,  the  native  Egyptians  arose 
and  succeeded  in  expelling  these  rulers.  Ahmose,  or 
Aniosis  I.,  the  leader  of  the  new  movement,  pursued 
the  Hyksos  into  Palestine  and  put  the  tribes  he  found 
there  under  tribute.  The  second  ruler  of  the  new 
native  dynasty  (the  Eighteenth  Dynasty)  possibly  pene- 
trated as  far  as  the  Euphrates.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
he  really  established  rule  over  such  distant  regions,  but 
his  second  successor,  Thutmose,  or  Thutmosis,  III., 
about  1470  b.  c,  made  Syria,  as  far  as  the  Eui)hrates, 
tributary,  and  even  crossed  the  river  into  northwestern 
]\resopotamia.  Under  the  rule  of  this  monarch,  Egypt 
reached  the  height  of  its  power,  with  a  territory  ex- 
tending from  Etliiopia  to  Asia  Minor  and  from  Pha3- 
nicia  to  the  Euphrates.     Egypt's  rule  over  this  great 


28  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Asiatic  territory  was  not  very  long  continued,  for  she 
did  not  know  how  to  bind  such  heterogeneous  and 
wide-spread  members  into  a  permanent  empire.  The 
Tel-el-Amarna  letters,  a  little  later,  show  the  local 
Egyptian  governors  at  feud  with  each  other  or  appeal- 
ing frantically  for  help  against  foreign  invaders  to  a 
central  government  that  seems  rarely  to  have  given  aid 
when  and  where  it  was  most  needed.  From  the  north 
the  Hittites  advanced  into  Syria,  while  other  invaders 
from  the  east,  called  the  Habiri,  pressed  in  upon  both 
Syria  and  Palestine.  A  century  after  the  great  victo- 
ries of  Thutmose  III.  Egypt  had  lost  even  nominal 
sway  over  all  her  Asiatic  dominions  except  Palestine. 
In  the  north  of  Syria  the  Hittite  was  now  dominant, 
and  the  Amorite  kingdom  had  established  itself  as 
far  south  as  Tyre  and  Galilee,  while  the  Habiri  had 
effected  settlements  in  various  places. 

A  new  dynasty  which  came  to  the  Egyptian  throne 
did  some  vigorous  campaigning  in  Palestine,  but  could 
not  push  far  north  of  Galilee.  During  the  reign  of  an 
early  monarch  of  the  line,  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
the  Hittites,  who  retained  the  greater  part  of  Syria, 
while  Palestine  and  the  Phoenician  coast  were  secured 
to  the  Egyptians.  This  ruler,  Ramses,  or  Ramesu,  II., 
is  of  especial  interest  to  the  Bible  student,  since  he 
built  Pithom  and  so  must  be  the  Pharaoh  referred 
to  in  Exodus  as  bringing  the  Israelites  into  bondage. 
The  next  Pharaoh,  Merneptah,  maintained  friendly 
relations  with  his  Hittite  neighbors,  but  his  reign  was 
followed  by  a  period  in  which  several  kings  ruled  in 
quick  succession,  and  which  terminated  in  anarchy. 
The  Hebrew  exodus,  if  it  involved  any  large  number, 
could  hardly  have  occurred  earlier  than  this  time  of 


EARLY  SEMITIC  HISTORY  29 

confusion,  when  Egypt  was  so  disturbed  internally  that 
she  could  not  maintain  much  control  outside  her  own 
borders. 

For  a  brief  account  of  Syria  and  Palestine  prior  to 
1200  B.C.,  read  Kent,  "United  Kingdom,"  §§  20-24. 
For  fuller  discussion  of  the  history,  reference  may  be 
made  to  :  Paton,  "  Early  History  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine," pages  74-136  ;  McCurdy,  "  History,  Prophecy, 
and  the  Monuments,"  I.,  pages  152-223.  For  Egyptian 
history  during  the  period  of  her  dominance  in  Pales- 
tine, reference  may  be  made  to  Breasted,  "  History  of 
the  Egyptians"  (in  preparation),  or  his  larger  work, 
"  Hist,  of  Egypt,"  pages  233-501 ;  Newberry  and  Gar- 
stang,  "  Hist,  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  pages  121-167 ; 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  660-662;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  n.,  cols.  1238-1242. 


II 

TRADITIONS    OF    THE    HEBREWS    REGARDIXG 

THE   BEGINNINGS    (3F   HUMAN    HISTORY  — 

GENESIS    I-ll^« 

Having  traced  the  general  history  of  Babylonia, 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  down  to  the  age  when  the  Israel- 
ites were  to  enter  the  promised  land,  that  is,  to  abont 
1200  B.  c,  a  strict  compliance  with  logical  order  would 
require  us  to  pass  immediately  to  the  investigation  of 
Israel's  origin.  This  method  would,  however,  leave 
no  convenient  place  for  the  study  of  the  entire  body 
of  highly  significant  and  interesting  narratives  in 
Genesis  l-ll^^.  These  accounts  deal  with  pre-historic 
times  and  belong  chronologically  before  the  material  of 
Section  L ,  but  some  knowledge  of  matters  therein 
included  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of  the  rela- 
tion of  these  narratives  to  their  Assyro-Babylonian 
parallels. 

§  10.  First  Creation  Account  of  Genesis  and  the 
Babylonian  Creation  Narrative.  Genesis  1-2^^. 

1.    Structure  of  the  Genesis  Narrative. 

Group  the  events  of  creation  by  days  in  parallel 
columns  of  three  days  each  and  compare  the  columns, 
noting  the  symmetrical  structure  of  the  two.  Note 
the  recurring  phrases  of  the  narrative  and  any  other 
interesting  elements  of  literary  style. 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING    HUMAN   HISTORY        31 

2.  Teachings  of  the  Genesis  Narrative. 

Xote :  (1)  the  conceptions  of  God  and  man  wliicli  are 
clearly  implied  in  the  account ;  (2)  the  idea  with  which 
the  account  culminates. 

3.  Tlie  Assyro-Bahylonian  Creation  Account. 

Read  at  least  one  of  the  following-  references  and 
note  the  points  of  resemblance  and  difference  between 
the  Hebrew  and  Assy ro-Baby Ionian  narratives:  Kent, 
"  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  360-370  ;  Driver, 
"  Genesis,"  pages  20-35 ;  Davis,  "  Genesis  and  Semit. 
Tradit.,"  pages  1-22  ;  Jastrow,  "  Religion  Bab.  and 
Assyr.,"  ch.  xxi. ;  Ryle,"  Early  Narratives  Gen.,"  pages 
14-23;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  o04-o06 ; 
Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  80-85 ;  Worcester, 
"  Gen.  in  Light  Modern  Knowledge,"  pages  109-126 ; 
"  Bib.  World,"  Jan.,  1891,  pages  6-16. 

4.  Genesis  1-2**  and  Modern  Science. 

In  the  last  century  several  geologists  undertook  to 
show  substantial  harmony  between  the  first  creation 
account  of  Genesis  and  modern  science.  In  order  to 
do  this,  it  was  necessary  to  assume  that  the  "  days  "  of 
creation  were  really  long  ages.  AVith  this  granted,  the 
general  order  of  creation  was  found  to  be  much  the 
same  according  to  Genesis  and  the  conclusions  of 
geology.  Several  disagreements,  however,  can  hardly 
be  denied.  Note  carefully  the  clear  representation  of 
Genesis  that  vegetable  life  flourished  two  periods  be- 
fore animal  life  appeared,  that  fishes  and  birds 
appeared  together  and  preceded  all  land  animals, 
that  the  heavenly  bodies  appeared  after  the  earth,  tliat 
animals  were  at  first  vegetarian,  and  that  the  sky  is  a 


32  HEBREW  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

solid  dome,  supporting  the  waters  above  the  heavens 
(v.  7,  cf.  Pss.  148"^).  For  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
harmony,  see  Guyot,  "  Creation  "  ;  Dana,  "  First  Chap- 
ter of  Genesis  and  Science  "  ;  Dawson,  "  Origin  of  the 
World  according  to  Revelation  and  Science,"  "  Eden 
Lost  and  Won."  For  discussions  presenting  the  pre- 
vailing view  of  Biblical  scholars,  see  Driver,  "Genesis," 
pages  19-26 ;  Mitchell,  "  World  before  Abraham," 
pages  115-119  ;  Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.,  "  pages  23- 
31 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  507. 

§  11.  The  Second  Creation  Account  op  Genesis. 
Genesis  2*^-25. 

1.  Structure  of  Narrative. 

Compare  Genesis  2^''~25  ^j{^|^  Genesis  1-2^^"  in  refer- 
ence to :  (1)  order  of  events  ;  (2)  rigidity  and  repe- 
tiousness  of  style  ;  (3)  name  of  the  Creator. 

2.  Teacliings  of  the  Narrative. 

Compare  the  teachings  of  the  first  and  second,  crea- 
tion accounts  concerning  man  and  God  ;  what  have 
they  in  common  ?  which  is  the  more  sublime  ? 

3.  Other  Traditions  of  Ma7i^s  Creation. 

No  such  close  parallel  is  found  for  the  second  crea- 
tion account  in  the  Assyro-Babylonian  literature  as  for 
the  first.  For  the  Babylonian  story  of  man's  creation 
from  earth  and  tlie  blood  of  the  god  Marduk  or  Belos, 
see  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  page  369  ;  Jastrow, 
"Relig.  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  pages  444-450;  Davis, 
"Gen.  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  page  36.  For  the  Egyp- 
tian story  of  man  shaped  from  clay  at  the  potter's 
wheel,  see  Davis,  "  Gen.  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  page  37  ; 


TRADITIONS  REGARDING  HUMAN  HISTORY        83 

Worcester,  "  Gen.  in  Light  Mod.  Knowl.,"  pages  96-102 
(includes  other  Egyptian  ideas  of  creation). 

4.    Genesis  2*^~25  ^^^^^i  Modern  Science. 

No  efforts  have  been  made  to  bring  the  narrative  of 
Genesis  2*^"25  into  harmony  with  modern  science. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  second  creation  account 
see:  Driver,  "Gen.,"  pages  35,  36,  52;  Mitchell, 
"World  before  Abraham,"  pages  119-123,  136-141; 
Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages  32-42  ;  Davis,  "  Gen. 
and  Semit/Tradit.,"  pages  36-54;  "Bib.  World," 
Feb.,  1894,  pages  97-108. 

§  12.  Paradise  and  the  Fall.  Genesis  2^''^\  31-21 
1.    Location  of  the  Garden. 

Note  carefully  the  statements  of  Genesis  as  to  tlic 
location  of  the  garden  and  the  rivers,  observing  the 
vagueness  and  uncertainty  of  the  description.  Through- 
out the  centuries  many  theories  have  been  propounded 
as  to  the  location  of  Paradise.  It  has  been  sought,  not 
only  in  every  part  of  the  world,  but  even  outside  of  it ; 
from  the  second  to  the  tenth  century,  many  holding 
that  it  was  half  on  earth  and  half  in  heaven.  It  was 
thought  of  as  beyond  the  western  sea  or  in  the  east, 
shut  in  behiud  terrible  mountains.^  With  present 
knowledge,  there  is  general  convergence  on  the  view 
that  the  tradition  placed  the  garden  in  southern 
JJabylonia.  vSee  :  Driver,  "  Gen.,"  pages  57-60  ;  J\[it- 
chell,  "  World  before  Abraham,"  pages  123-133  ;  Ryle, 
"  Early  Nars,  Gen.,"  pages  43-45 ;  Davis,  "  Gen. 
and   Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages  55-62  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 

1  Geikie,  "  Hours  with  tlie  Bible,"  I.,  pages  107-109. 

3 


34  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Bib.,"  L,  pag-es  643-644;  Worcester,  "Gen.  in  Light 
Mod.  Knowl.,"  pages  151-153. 

2.  Conditions  of  Life  Pictured. 

Note  the  ideas  of  the  narrative  as  to  labor  before  and 
after  sin. 

3.  Teachings  of  the  Narrative. 

Note:  (1)  the  anthropomorphic  character  of  the  pic- 
ture of  God  ;  (2)  the  motive  of  man's  sin  or  the  real 
nature  of  the  temptation ;  (3)  the  consequences  of  sin  ; 
(4)  the  outlook  for  man's  future.  Is  the  narrative 
consistent  with  man's  moral  experience  in  all  ages  ? 
Is  it  consistent  with  the  course  of  man's  history  as 
interpreted  by  the  doctrine  of  evolution  ?  Cf.  Kent, 
"  Origin  and  Perm.  Val.  of  0.  T.,"  pages  230-235. 

4.  Parallels  among  Other  Nations. 

A  few  years  ago,  it  was  thought  that  the  story  of  the 
temptation  and  fall  was  depicted  on  a  Babylonian 
cylinder.  This  represented  two  figures  in  human  form, 
seated,  facing  a  tree,  and  extending  their  hands  as 
though  to  grasp  the  fruit  hanging  from  it.  Between 
the  backs  of  the  two  figures,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  cylinder  from  the  tree,  was  a  serpent.  It  has  been 
pointed  out,  however,  that  the  differences  in  many 
details  are  too  great  to  enable  us  to  feel  that  we  have 
here  the  same  traditions.  See  Delitzsch, ''  Babel  and 
Bible,"  page  48,  for  view  that  it  was  probably  connected 
with  story  of  the  fall ;  Davis,  "  Gen.  and  Semit.  Tra- 
dit.,"  pages  65-67,  and  picture  facing  page  63,  for 
arguments  against  identification.  Worcester,  "  Gen. 
in  Light  Mod.  Knowl.,"  pages  197  ff.,  presents  at 
length  arguments  pro  and  con. 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING   HUMAN   HISTORY        35 

While  no  parallel  to  this  story  has  been  found  in 
other  Semitic  traditions,  the  setting  of  the  story  points 
very  strongly  to  Babylonia  for  its  origin.  The  situation 
of  the  garden  has  already  been  noted,  and  sacred  trees 
appear  constantly  as  emblematical  representations  in 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  sculptures.  Many  have 
identified  the  cherubim  with  the  winged,  man-headed 
bulls  of  Assyro-Babylonian  sculpture  and  of  Ezekiel's 
visions,  and  some  have  suggested  a  connection  between 
Tiamat  of  the  Babylonian  creation  story  and  the  ser- 
pent tempter.  The  serpent  appears  too  commonly, 
however,  in  early  legend,  as  a  symbol  of  dark  and  evil 
power,  to  afford  any  clear  connection  between  the  He- 
brew story  and  Babylonian  tradition.  The  conception 
of  a  primitive  golden  age  is,  if  possible,  still  more  uni- 
versal than  the  dread  of  the  serpent  in  ancient  folk 
lore. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  story  of  Paradise  and 
the  Fall,  see :  Driver,  "  Gen.,"  pages  44,  51-57,  60,  61 ; 
Mitchell,  "World  before  Abraham,"  pages  141-159; 
Kent,  "  Beginnings  Hcb.  Hist,"  pages  370-373  ;  Ryle, 
"  Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages  32-60 ;  Davis,  "  Gen.  and 
Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages  64-84 ;  Worcester,  "  Gen.  in 
Light  Mod.  Know].,"  chs.  viii.-xii. ;  "  Bib.  World,"  :Mar. 
1894,  pages  176-188. 

§  13.  Story  of  Cain  and  Abel.    Genesis,  4i~'"''' 

1.    Circumstances  Assumed,  hut  not  Exi)lained. 

Reading  the  narrative,  note:  (1)  sacrifice  presup- 
posed, but  no  account  of  institution ;  (2)  blood  revenge 
assumed  ;  (3)  no  exjjlanation  why  offering  of  Abel  was 
preferred,  or  how  the  preference  was  indicated. 


86  HEBREW  HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

2.    Purpose. 

Consider  the  purpose  of  the  narrative :  (1)  in  relation 
to  the  story  of  the  development  of  civilization ;  (2)  in 
relation  to  the  moral  teaching  of  the  series  of  narratives. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  story  of  Cain  and  Abel, 
aee:  Driver,  "Gen.,"  pages  62,  63,  71,  72;  Mitchell, 
"  World  before  Abraham,"  pages  159-1G8 ;  Ryle, 
"Early  Nars,  Gen.,"  pages  61-77;  Davis,  "Gen.  and 
Semit.  Tradit.,"'  pages  85-89  ;  Worcester,  "  Gen.  in 
Light  Mod.  KnowL,"  ch.  xiii.;  "Bib.  World,"  April, 
1894,  pages  266-271. 

§  14.  The  Two  Lists  of  Antediluvians.  Gene- 
sis, 41*^  -5 

1.  Comparison  of  the  Lists. 

Write,  in  parallel  columns,  the  generations  of  chaps. 
4  and  5,  be2:inning  the  second  column  two  lines  above 
the  first,  so  that  Kenan  of  ch.  5  will  come  on  the  line 
with  Cain  of  ch.  4.  Draw  lines  connecting  Enoch  of 
the  first  column  with  Enoch  of  the  second,  and  Mehujael 
of  the  first  with  Mahalalel  of  the  second.  Compare  the 
two  lists  when  thus  placed  and  consider  whether  they 
are  really  two  different  lists,  or  one  is  based  on  the  other. 

2.  Tlie  Long  Lives  of  Chapter  5. 

The  ancient  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch  and 
the  Greek  translation  made  in  the  third  century  b.  c. 
differ  greatly  from  our  text  of  the  Hebrew  in  the  total 
number  of  years  assigned  to  the  lives  of  the  antedilu- 
vians. The  Samaritan  version  makes  the  total  1307 
years,  the  Greek  2262  years,  while  our  version  makes 
the  total  1656  years.  Adopting  either  text,  the  diffi- 
culties   with   the   list   are   manifest.     Various   forced 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING   HUMAN   HISTORY        37 

explanations  have  been  offered  to  relieve  the  physical 
difficulties,  for  it  is  generally  recognized  that  the  hu- 
man body  is  not  so  constituted  as  naturally  to  live 
through  the  long  periods  here  mentioned.  It  has  been 
thought  that,  in  the  early  days  of  humanity,  powers 
were  fresher  and  stronger,  so  that  the  human  mech- 
anism could  longer  resist  atrophy  and  decay.  In  this 
connection  we  may  note  that  the  length  of  normal 
human  life  does  not  seem  to  have  varied  materially 
since  Psalm  90  was  written,  unless  it  be  to  lengthen 
slightly.  Another  purely  arbitrary  explanation  offered 
is  that,  until  the  time  of  Abraham,  three  months  were 
called  a  year,  from  Abraham  to  Joseph,  eight  months, 
and  since,  twelve  months.  A  more  plausible  theory  is 
that  the  names  represent  tribes  or  dynasties.  While 
the  extreme  lengths  of  individual  lives  involve  physical 
ditticulties  that  make  a  literal  interpretation  impossible, 
the  total  number  of  years  from  the  origin  of  man  to 
Abraham,  on  the  other  hand,  is  far  too  short  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  present  knowledge.  We  have 
already  seen  a  highly  developed  civilization  existing  in 
Babylonia  at  a  date  earlier  than  this  list  would  seem  to 
imply  for  Adam's  creation,  while  the  geologist  and 
autliropologist  find  evidence  of  man's  existence  tens,  if 
not  hundreds,  of  thousands  of  years  before  the  dawn  of 
history  in  Babylonia.  Even  very  conservative  scholars 
have  recognized  the  difficulty  and  explained  it  by  main- 
taining that  the  line  may  not  be  complete.  See  Green, 
"  Unity  Book  of  Genesis,"  pages  49-50. 

3.    Purpose  of  the  Lists. 

The  list  of  chap.  4  is  apparently  designed  to  carry 
forward  the  story  of  the  earliest  civilization,  interrupted 


38  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

by  the  account  of  the  first  murder.  Chap  5.,  on  the 
other  hand,  carries  us  back  by  its  heading,  "  the  book 
of  the  generations  of  Adam,"  as  well  as  by  its  rigid, 
repetitious  style  with  constantly  recurring  phrases, 
to  the  first  creation  account,  terminating  at  2*\  It 
seems  clearly  designed  to  bridge  the  gap  between  this 
and  the  narrative  of  the  deluge.  The  first  creation 
account  contains  the  covenant  with  Adam,  wherein  he 
is  given  the  vegetable  world  for  food,  and  is  allowed 
dominion  over  the  beasts,  and  culminates  in  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Sabbath.  The  narrative  of  tlie  flood  simi- 
larly contains  the  covenant  with  Noah  and  the  giving 
of  flesh  to  eat.     Both  lists  close  at  the  same  point. 

For  further  discussion  of  the  lists,  see :  Driver, 
"  Gen.,"  pages  68,  72-74 ;  Mitchell,  "  World  before 
Abraham,"  pages  168-90  ;  Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.," 
pages  78-95 ;  Davis,  "  Gen.  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages 
90-100;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  620-628;  Worcester, 
"  Gen.  in  Light  Mod.  Knowl.,"  cli.  xiv. ;  "  Biblical 
World,"  April,  1894,  pages  265-266,  271-274,  May, 
pages  326-335. 

§  15.  The  Deluge  Narrative  in  Genesis  and  in 
Babylonian  Literature.     Genesis  6-9^^. 

1.    Structure  of  the  Grenesis  Narrative. 

In  reading  the  narrative,  note  carefully  all  the  chron- 
ological statements  and  try  to  make  out  a  chronology 
of  the  flood  story.  Next,  put  together,  in  one  column, 
all  the  statements  that  give  dates  by  year,  month,  and 
day  of  month,  e.  g.  7^'^^  8*,  and  consider  whether, 
from  these  alone,  a  more  self-consistent  chronology  is 
obtained  than  before.  Then  place,  in  another  column, 
all  the  statements  that  give  the  time  by  periods   of 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING   HUMAN   HISTORY        39 

seven  and  forty,  and  consider  the  account  of  the  dura- 
tion of  events  thus  obtained.  These  various  data  will 
be  reconsidered  later  on.  Note  also  the  different 
statements  as  to  the  number  of  animals  and  the  appar- 
ent discrepancy  between  8°  and  8^, 

2.  Teacliings  of  the  Genesis  Narrative. 

(1)  Note:  (1)  the  culmination  of  the  story  of  sin 
begun  in  ch.  3  ;  (2)  the  character  of  God  as  exhibited  in 
this  judgment ;  (3)  the  ground  of  the  deliverance  ;  (4) 
the  new  start  for  humanity.  Note  also  the  permission 
to  eat  flesh  without  the  blood,  and  the  terms  of  the 
covenant, 

3.  Tlie  Assyro-Bahylonian  Deluge  Narrative. 

In  the  eleventh  tablet  of  the  Babylonian  epic  of 
Gilgamesh  is  the  narrative  of  a  deluge,  showing  many 
striking  resemblances  to  the  Biblical  account.  The 
hero  of  the  story  was  directed  to  build  a  vessel  of  pre- 
scribed dimensions  and  to  stock  it  with  provisions. 
Into  this  he  gathered  "  seed  of  life  of  every  kind." 
The  flood  came  and  destroyed  all  men  and  animals, 
except  those  saved  in  this  single  vessel.  At  length  the 
ship  grounded  on  a  mountain  and  birds  were  sent  forth 
to  test  the  subsidence  of  the  waters.  On  coming  out 
of  the  ship  the  hero  of  the  story  offered  sacrifice.  The 
Babylonian  account  gives  the  occupants  of  the  vessel 
as  including  servants,  workmen,  and  a  pilot,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  hero  and  his  wife.  In  this  narrative,  too, 
the  storm  lasted  only  seven  days  and  drained  off  in 
another  seven.  The  birds  sent  out  were  a  dove,  swal- 
low, and  raven.  Such  differences  are  no  greater  than 
one  would  expect  to  arise  in  the  transmission  of  the 


40  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

same  original  story  through  different  nations,  and  the 
resemblances  are  such  as  to  force  the  conclusion  that 
the  accounts  were  originally  one.  The  greatest  differ- 
ence lies  in  the  strong  ethical  turn  given  to  the  story 
in  its  Hebrew  form.  In  the  Babylonian  story  the 
gods  appear  acting  capriciously,  and  the  idea  of  pun- 
ishment barely  comes  to  the  surface.  In  strongest 
contrast  is  the  ethical  and  religious  use  made  of  the 
narrative  in  Genesis.  The  wide  prevalence  of  flood 
traditions  in  the  legends  of  many  peoples  and  differ- 
ent continents  has  often  been  emphasized  and  urged 
as  an  argument  for  the  historical  verity  of  a  universal 
flood,  within  the  memory  of  man. 

For  a  translation  of  tlie  Babylonian  flood  story,  more 
or  less  complete,  see  :  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.," 
pages  373-378;  Mitchell,  "World  before  Abraham," 
pages  111-113  ;  Price,  "  Mens,  and  0.  T.,"  pages  90-93  ; 
Worcester,  "  Gen.  in  Light  Mod.  Knowl.,"  ch.  xviii. ; 
"Bib.  World,"  Feb.,  1891,  pages  110-118. 

4.    Genesis  6-9^^  and  Modern  Science. 

Certain  difficulties  with  the  narrative  of  Gen.  6-9^^ 
are  obvious.  The  practicability  of  including  all  forms 
of  animal  life  in  a  single  vessel  some  450  feet  long  and 
75  feet  broad,  together  with  food  for  their  maintenance 
during  the  period  of  the  deluge,  hardly  needs  discus- 
sion. If,  however,  such  difficulties  seem  surmount- 
able, modern  geology  and  anthropology  are  perfectly 
decisive  in  negativing  any  literal  understanding  of 
a  world-wide  flood  within  human  memory  and  a  re- 
peopling  of  the  entire  earth  from  one  centre.  For 
discussion  of  these  questions,  see:  Driver,  "Gen.," 
pages  82,  83,  99;   Ryle,   "Early   Nars,  Gen.,"    pages 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING   HUMAN   HISTORY        41 

112-113  ;    Davis,    "  Gen.  and    Scmit.  Tradit.,"   pages 
130,  131. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  entire  narrative,  see : 
Driver,"  Gen.,"  pages  82,  83,  85,  86,  99-108  ;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  pages  16-23  ;  Mitchell,  "  World  before 
Abraham,"  pages  190-227  ;  Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.," 
pages  96-118  ;  Davis,  "  Gen  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages 
110-131;  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  89-96; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  1055-1066  ;  Worcester,  "  Gen.  in 
Light  Mod.  KnowL,"  ch.  xviii.  ;  "  Bib.  World,"  1894, 
July,  pages  20-31,  Aug.,  pages  114-123. 

§  16.  Noah,  the  fikst  Vineyard  Keeper,  and  his 
Sons.     Genesis  920-28. 

Tliis  brief  section  is  of  interest  chiefly  because  of  the 
relation  of  the  races  it  pictured  in  Noah's  curse,  and 
because  of  its  emphasis  on  filial  respect. 

It  seems  not  improbable  that  it  belongs,  chronologi- 
cally, before,  rather  than  after,  the  deluge  narrative,  at 
a  time  when  Noah's  sons  were  comparatively  young. 
For  further  discussion,  see  :  Driver,  "  Gen.,"  pages  111, 
112;  Mitchell,  "World  before  Abraham,"  pages  228- 
233;  Ryle,  "Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages  119-123. 

§  17.   Table  of  the  Nations.     Genesis  10. 

1.    Structure  of  the  Table. 

Arrange  the  names  of  the  chapter  in  a  genealogical 
taljle,  so  as  to  show  distinctly  just  how  far  each  line  is 
carried.  Note  that  though  the  form  is  genealogical  the 
list  includes  names  with  which  we  are  familiar  as 
names  of  cities,  districts,  and  peoples.  St.  Augustine 
observed  that  we  had  here  "  nations,  not  men."  When 
the  narrative  states  that  Canaan  begat  Sidon  and  lletli, 


42  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

it  seems  natural  to  interpret  this  as  meaning  that  the 
city  of  Sidon  and  the  Hittites  were  to  be  found  in  the 
land  called  Canaan.  An  examination  of  the  table 
shows  that  the  principle  of  classification  cannot  have 
been  entirely  racial,  but  rather  that  geographical  loca- 
tion is  determinative,  though  political,  commercial,  and, 
perhaps  to  some  extent,  racial  relations  may  have 
modified  the  grouping.  The  table  covers  southwestern 
Asia,  a  little  of  Africa,  and,  possibly,  a  bit  of  Europe. 
An  attempt  to  represent  the  geographical  picture  of  the 
chapter  may  be  found  on  the  map,  page  58,  of  MacCoun, 
"  Holy  Land  in  History." 

2.    Sigyiificance  of  the  Table. 

What  has  already  been  said  has  indicated  that  the 
table  apparently  violates  a  fundamental  requirement  of 
scientific  classification.  The  division  does  not  seem  to 
be  based  entirely  on  any  one  principle.  That  principle 
which  is  most  prominent,  namely,  geographical  loca- 
tion, is  one  that  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  classification 
of  races.  We  have  here  a  rough  picture  of  the  distri- 
bution of  the  peoples  known  to  the  ancient  writer,  the 
chief  significance  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  its  contri- 
bution to  the  Hebrew  conception  of  humanity  as  being 
of  one  kindred. 

For  general  discussion  of  this  chapter,  see:  Driver, 
"  Gen.,"  pages  112-114  ;  Mitchell, ''  World  before  Abra- 
ham," pages  233-265  ;  Ryle, "  Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages 
123-127 ;  Davis,  "  Gen.  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages 
185-139;  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  97-99; 
Wade,  "  O.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  63-74. 


TRADITIONS   REGxVRDING   HUMAN   HISTORY         43 

§  18.     Tower  of  Babel.     Genesis  IV'^. 

1.  Probable  Origin  of  the  Narrative. 

No  such  close  parallel  has  been  found  in  the  Assyro- 
Babylonian  tablets  for  the  story  of  Babel  as  for  the 
Creation  and  Flood  traditions,  yet  there  are  somewhat 
similar  Babylonian  traditions,  and  the  coloring  through- 
out bears  unmistakable  witness  of  strong  Babylonian 
influence.  The  scene,  Shinar,  is  Babylonia  ;  the  building 
materials,  bricks  and  bitumen,  are  those  of  Babylonia ; 
while  the  erection  of  great  towers  is  highly  characteristic 
of  that  region. 

2.  Signifieance  of  the  Narrative. 

The  story  is  evidently  an  effort  to  explain  the  scat- 
tering of  humanity  and  the  differences  of  languages,  and 
has  been  plausibly  held  to  represent  a  more  primitive 
theory  than  that  lying  behind  the  preceding  table  of 
nations.^  That  it  is  a  satisfactory  theory  woidd  hardly 
be  maintained  by  any  one  who  recognizes  the  results 
of  etlinology  and  pliilology  as  of  value.  The  only 
way  to  meet  this  difficulty  and  maintain  the  historical 
character  of  the  narrative  is  to  deny  that  it  is  intended 
to  explain  the  differences  of  language  the  world  over, 
or  even  the  characteristic  differences  which  distinguish 
the  great  families. 

While  tlie  settiug  of  the  narrative  is  so  strongly 
Babylonian,  its  present  form  is  as  markedly  Hebrew. 
The  building  of  the  huge  towers  of  Babylonia  was 
a  religious  act,  Avhilc  the  narrator  here  counts  it  as  an 
example  of  man's  wicked  vainglory.  The  destruction 
of   the  tower  and  the   inconvenient   babel    of   human 

1  MitelioU,  "  World  before  Abraham,"  page  265. 


44  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

languages  is  given  the  characteristic  Hebrew  interpre- 
tation of  a  divine  judgment.  This  story,  Hke  those  of 
the  fall,  the  first  murder,  the  flood,  is  used  to  furnish 
an  example  of  human  will  asserting  itself  and  meeting 
the  judgment  of  Jehovah. 

For  further  discussion,  see :  Driver,  "  Genesis," 
pages  132-134,  136,  137;  Mitchell,  "World  before 
Abraham,"  pages  265-271;  Ryle,  "  Early  Nars,  Gen.," 
pages  127-133  ;  Davis,"  Gen.  and  Semit.  Tradit.,"  pages 
141-150;  Worcester,  "Gen.  in  Light  Mod.  Know!.," 
ch.  xxii.;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  lY.,  pages  7'J0-793; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  L,  cols.  410-413. 

§  19.   The  Postdiluvians.     Genesis  IV^'^. 

Compare  :  (1)  the  line  with  that  of  Shem  in  ch. 
10;  (2)  the  length  of  the  lives  with  those  of  ch.  5. 
For  discussion  of  tlie  list  consult  Driver,  "  Genesis," 
pages  137,138;  Mitchell,  "World  before  Abraham," 
pages  271-280;  Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages 
133-135. 

§  20.    General  Yiew  of  Genesis  1-11-6. 
1.    Structure. 

(1)    Documentary  Analysis. 

The  question  of  the  composite  authorship  of  Genesis 
1-11  has  been  largely  ignored  in  the  studies  up  to  this 
point ;  but  many  facts  have  been  noted  which,  when 
considered  together,  bear  clear  evidence  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  distinct  strands  of  narrative  interwoven 
in  the  chapters.  One  of  these  is  represented  in  the 
minute  genealogies  of  chapters  5  and  11,  with  their 
rigid,  repetitious  style,  and  in  the  first  creation  account, 
which  shows  the  same   characteristics  of  style.     The 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING   HUMAN   HISTORY         45 

Other  is  represented  in  the  picturesque  narratives  of  the 
creation  of  man,  the  garden,  fall,  first  murder,  and 
tower  of  Babel.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  section,  the 
two  kinds  of  material  are  not  closely  interwoven  and 
are  easily  separated.  In  the  deluge  narrative,  however, 
the  two  strands  appear  much  more  closely  interlaced, 
yet  to  recognize  their  presence  relieves,  at  once,  the 
difficulties  in  the  chronology  of  the  section.  If  the 
verses  which  give  the  dates  with  minute  attention  to 
year,  month,  and  day  are  recognized  as  belonging  to 
the  strand  that  contains  the  statistical  genealogies, 
while  those  which  give  the  time  in  the  round  numbers 
forty  and  seven  are  attributed  to  the  source  which 
gives  the  broadly  sketched  stories,  each  part  will  be 
found  self-consistent.  The  proof  of  this  will  be  appar- 
ent to  one  who  reads  each  narrative  continuously  in 
such  a  book  as  Kent's,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist,"  pages 
51-70. 

Such  facts  as  these  persist  throughout  the  first  six 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  order  to  give  them 
adequate  explanation,  modern  scholars  have  come  to 
agree,  in  substance,  upon  a  theory  of  the  literary  origin 
of  these  books,  the  reasonableness  of  which  can  only  be 
ajjparcnt  to  one  who  has  worked  his  way  through  the 
books  in  question,  but  which  may  be  briefly  explained 
at  this  point. 

It  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  Ilexateuch  has  gone 
through  a  long  literary  history,  beginning  as  soon  as 
there  was  a  literary  class  and  opportunity  in  Israel.  It 
was  not  the  work  of  one  mind,  but  of  many  master 
minds.  The  rigidity  and  the  picturesqueness  of  nar- 
rative already  noticed  point  back  respectively  to  priestly 
and  projihetical  authorship.     Other  indications  support 


46  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

this  distinction,  and  justify  a  belief  in  the  gradual 
combination  into  one  unified  composition  of  several 
earlier,  strongly  individualized  narratives. 

The  theory  assumes  that,  in  the  centuries  following 
Solomon,  two  prophets,  eager  to  establish  their  fellow- 
countrymen  in  loyalty  to  God,  made  use  of  the  abun- 
dance of  traditions  and  records,  inherited  from  their 
fathers,  in  the  composition  of  histories  of  their  nation, 
each  of  which  was  complete  for  its  own  purpose.  One 
was,  possibly,  a  century  earlier  than  the  other.  The 
earlier,  a  prophet  of  Judah,  conveniently  styled  J, 
began  his  history  with  the  creation  of  mankind  and 
traced  the  origin  and  development  of  the  "  chosen 
people  "  from  the  divine  selection  of  Abraham  to  the 
organization  of  the  kingdom.  His  central  thought  was 
the  continuous  guidance  of  God  in  all  Israel's  affairs. 
The  other  prophet,  belonging  to  the  northern  or 
Ephraimite  kingdom  and  conveniently  styled  E,  was 
chiefly  interested  in  the  dominant  personalities  through 
whom  God  exercised  this  guidance  and  in  the  m.ethods 
by  which  they  kept  in  touch  with  God.  So  distinct 
were  the  resulting  histories,  and  yet  so  parallel,  making 
use  as  they  did  of  the  same  materials,  that  it  became 
possible  for  some  editor,  not  far  from  Josiah's  time,  to 
unite  the  two  into  one  prophetic  history,  styled  JE, 
more  comprehensive  than  either  by  itself.  Not  earlier 
than  the  exile  a  priest  (P),  who  may  have  felt  that, 
while  these  prophetical  histories  of  Israel  were  of  great 
value,  they  failed  to  do  justice  to  much  regarded  by 
him  as  essential,  prepared  a  history  which  traced  the 
origins  of  the  religious  institutions  of  Israel.  During 
and  after  the  exile,  a  movement  toward  the  editing  and 
collecting  of  the  religious  writings  of  the  nation  arose, 


TRADITIONS   REGARDING    HUMAN   HISTORY  47 

■which  resulted  in  the  combining  of  these  histories 
and  of  the  laws  which  they  had  recorded  into  one 
great  whole,  the  work  of  the  priest  being  taken  as  a 
basis. 

The  argument  for  this  theory  is  a  cumulative  one, 
based  upon  the  combination  of  several  distinct  lines  of 
evidence.  It  cannot  be  weighed  as  a  whole  until  one 
has  studied,  at  least,  the  entire  Pentateuch.  Some  of 
the  lines  of  evidence,  however,  appear  distinctly  in 
connection  with  Genesis  1-11.  Read  one  or  more  of 
the  following  references  and  note  the  different  kinds  of 
facts  on  which  the  analvsis  is  based :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib  Int.,"  pages  26-32,  60,  61 ;  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  8-15 ;  Kent, "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,'' 
page  21;  McFadyen,  "Int.,  0.  T.,"  pages  7-15; 
"Messages  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  7-17; 
Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  pages  863,  364.  A  detailed 
argument  against  the  analysis  of  this  section  may  be 
found  in  Green,  "  Unity  of  Book  of  Genesis,"  pages 
1-147. 

(2)    Unity  of  Plan  and  Purpose. 

a.  Note  the  repeated  use  of  the  phrase  "  These  are 
the  generations."  What  is  the  significance  of  the 
repetition  ? 

b.  Note :  (1)  the  narratives  illustrating  the  progress 
of  institutional  religion  —  Sabbath,  sacrifice,  covenants  ; 
(2)  those  illustrating  the  course  of  human  sin  in  its 
origin,  growth,  and  outcome.  Observe  in  which  strand 
of  the  composite  narrative  each  of  those  two  lines  of 
development  is  given.  For  a  discussion  of  the  unity 
of  Genesis,  see  :  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  3-7  ; 
"  Messages  of  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  27,  28  ; 
Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  6-8;  Ilazard-Fowlcr, 


48  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

"Bks.  of  Bible,"  pages  6,  7;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.," 
II.,  page  143,  col.  a, 

2.  Genesis  1-11^^  as  a  Historical  Source. 

(1)  Argument  from  Science. 

Review  the  ten  narratives  into  which  the  section  has 
been  divided,  considering  the  points  intwhich  they  seem 
to  be  in  agreement  or  disagreement  with  the  views  of 
modern  geology,  biology,  ethnology,  philology,  and  an- 
thropology. Formulate  a  statement  of  your  tentative 
conclusions  as  to  the  possibility  of  maintaining  their 
literal  accuracy. 

(2)  Argument  from  Comparison  with  Traditions  of 
other  Ancient  Peoples. 

Review  the  narratives  in  comparison  with  traditions 
of  other  early  peoples  and  formulate  a  statement  of 
your  tentative  conclusions  as  to  the  way  in  which  the 
narratives  of  Genesis  1-11  came  into  existence.  For 
brief  general  discussion  of  Genesis  1-11  as  an  histori- 
cal source,  consult :  Driver,  "  Genesis,"  pages  xxxi- 
xlii.;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  page  146,  col.  b. 

3.  The  Relifjious  Philosophj  of  Genesis  1-11^^. 

(1)    Conception  of  God. 

Consider  the  idea  of  God  embodied  in  these  narra- 
tives :  (1)  in  his  relation  to  the  material  universe ; 
(2)  in  his  relation  to  his  sentient  creatures.  Do  all 
the  narratives  give  an  equally  satisfying  conception  of 
God  ?  Compare  the  Hebrew  conceptions  of  God  with 
those  seen  in  the  parallel  traditions  of  other  ancient 
peoples,  noting  resemblances  and  differences. 


TRADITIONS  REGARDING  HUMAN  HISTORY        49 

(2)    Conception  of  j\ran. 

Consider  the  idea  of  man  in  relation  to  the  material 
universe,  animal  life,  other  human  beings,  and  God, 
embodied  in  these  narratives. 

(8)    Conception  of  Sin. 

Formulate  the  conception  of  sin  and  its  consequences 
emphasized  in  these  narratives. 

4.    Tentative  Conclusions  concerning  Genesis  1-11^^. 

In  view  of  the  facts  noted  under  2  and  3,  formulate 
a  preliminary  statement  of  your  conclusions  as  to  the 
real  nature  and  value  of  this  portion  of  the  book  of 
Genesis.  Try  to  keep  your  mind  open  for  a  free  and 
fair  revision  of  present  conclusions,  as  further  study  of 
the  Old  Testament  may  throw  some  additional  light 
upon  this  particular  portion. 

Discussions  of  this  part  of  Genesis,  treating  the 
section  from  various  points  of  view,  may  be  found  in 
Ryle,  "  Early  Nars.  Gen.,"  pages  viii-x,  135-138 ; 
Driver,  "  Genesis,"  pages  xli-lxxiv,  and  page  1 ;  Kent, 
"  Grig,  and  Perm.  Val.  O.  T.,"  pages  225-236  ;  Harper, 
"Bib.  World,"  1894,  pages  184-201,  266-278,349-358. 


Ill 


FOKMATI\^   AGE   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY. 
GENESIS   11^^   TO   FIRST   SAMUEL  7 

§  21.   Period  of  the  Patriarchs.     Genesis  112"-50. 

1.    Stories  Associated  with  the  Name  of  Abram-Ahraham. 
Genesis  lV^'-2b^\ 

(1)  Composite  Character  and  Contents  of  the  Narra- 
tives. 

The  prophetic  and  priestly  strands  of  material  recog- 
nized in  chapters  1-11  (§  20,  1,  (1))  are  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable throughout  the  Abraham  narratives.  The 
criteria  for  differentiating  them  are,  in  general,  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  chapters.  In  chapter  15 
the  third  source  (E)  begins  to  be  distinguishable,  and 
appears  quite  clearly  from  chapter  20  onward.  In 
many  respects,  it  resembles  the  Judean  prophetic 
narratives,  but  is  frequently  plainly  separable  from 
them. 

The  material  may  be  analyzed  as  follows  : 

Judean  Proph.  (J)  ll^s-so     12i-4»       126-20       131-5 

Ephriamite  Proph.  (E) 

Late  Priestly  (P)  124^.5 

J.  136b-na  1312b-18  151b,2a  153b,4  156-12a 

E.  151^        152^3'^         155 

P.       136a  1311b,12a 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  51 

J.  15120  1517  21       161b,2  164   14  18,191-28 

E.     1512b.  1513-16 

P.  161^      163        1615  1*5,  17 

J.  1930-38  21 1--^  212^  217  2125.26 

E.  20        211''  21^     218-24         2127 

P.     1929  212^-5 

J.     212^-30      2132-34      2220-21     24,2510        2511^       2518 

E.  2131         221-19 

P.  23  257-11=^     2512  17 

Chapter  14  is  from  some  independent  source.  In 
reading  this  portion  of  Genesis  as  analyzed,  note : 
(1)  the  representation  of  the  J  narratives ;  (2)  of  the 
E  narratives ;  (3)  the  differences  and  points  of  agree- 
ment between  the  two  ;  (4)  the  P  material  in  comparison 
with  JE. 

The  Biblical  material  is  printed  as  divided  among  the 
sources  in  :  Kent,  "Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  74  ff. ; 
Carpenter  and  Battersby, "  Hexateuch,"  II.,  pages  18  ff. ; 
Bacon,  "  Genesis  of  Gen.,"  pages  119  ff.  The  analysis 
is  presented,  in  Kent :  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages 
xiv,  XV ;  Carp,  and  Bat.,  "Hex."  I.,  pages  272,278; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  61,  62  ;  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  16, 159 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
I.,  pages  13,  14.  Slight  differences  may  be  observed  in 
the  analysis  as  made  by  different  critics,  but  general 
agreement  will  be  found. 

(2)  Origin  and  Historical  Basis  of  the  Traditions. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references :  Has- 
tings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Abraham,"  also  II.,  page  147  ; 
"Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Abraliam";  Paton,  "Early  Hist. 
Syr.  and  Pal.,"  pages  31-46,  123,  124;  Kent,"  Begin- 


52  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

nings  Heb.  Hist,"  pages  8-12,  22  ;  Driver,  "  Genesis," 
pages  xliii-lxi,  141,  142,  191-193,  203,  230 ;  Coniill, 
"Hist.  Peop.  Isr.,"  pages  27-35;  Kittel,  "Hist.  Isr.," 
I.,  pages  172-183;  H.  P.  Smith,  "0.  T.  Hist,"  cli. 
iii. ;  Wade,  "  0.  T.  Hist,"  pages  81-83.  In  reading, 
try  to  secure  definite  impressions  regarding  the  follow- 
ing points  :  (1)  difficulties  in  accepting  all  the  narra- 
tives as  strictly  historical ;  (2)  significance  of  the  two 
names,  Abram  and  Abraham ;  (3)  historical  value  of 
Gen.  14  ;  (4)  whether  Abraham  represents  an  indi- 
vidual, tribal  history,  or  both ;  (5)  original  home  of 
the  Hebrews  ;  (6)  migrations  reflected  in  the  stories ; 
(7)  tribal  relationships  indicated  ;  (8)  facts  underlying 
stories  of  Abraham  in  Egypt  and  Philistia  ;  (9)  faith  in 
Jehovah's  cai^e  and  guidance  implied  in  the  stories. 

(3)  The  Leading  Ideas  of  the  Narratives. 

Try  to  formulate  what  the  prophetic  narrators  sought 
to  convey  to  their  readers  concerning :  (1)  the  charac- 
ter and  ways  of  God  as  exhibited  in  his  relations  with 
Abraham  ;  (2)  the  character  of  Abraham  as  an  ideal 
human  personality ;  (3)  the  tests  of  Abraham's  loy- 
alty to  God ;  (4)  tiie  gradual  growth  of  Abraham's 
importance. 

Notice  the  vivid  and  accurate  nomadic  setting  of  the 
narratives,  bringing  out  Oriental  hospitality,  home  life, 
modes  of  travel,  betrothal  customs,  and  business 
transactions. 

Notice  the  very  full  priestly  account  of  the  covenant 
of  circumcision. 

What  was  the  attitude  of  the  prophetical  writers 
regarding  those  actions  of  Abraham  which  we  must 
condemn  ? 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  53 

2.    Stoi'ies   Associated   with   the  Name  of  Jacoh-Israel. 
G-enesis  25^°-3G. 

(1)  Composite  Character  and  Contents  of  the  Narra- 
tives. 

The  JE  material  appears  very  closely  interwoven 
throughout  a  large  part  of  this  section  of  Genesis.  The 
division  between  the  prophetic  and  priestly  sources  is 
as  follows : 

JE.  25-1-2633      27i-*5         28i0-31i8»      3119-355 

P.     251^0  265^-5       27^6-289  3118b  356a 

JE.     356b-8        35"        35i6-22a  3615-19        3631-39 

p.  359-1^    3515  35221^-361^       3620  30      3610-43 

The  two  great  strands  should  be  read  separately, 
noting:  (1)  details  of  Jacob's  career  as  recounted  in 
JE,  in  P ;  (2)  points  on  which  there  is  agreement 
between  the  prophetic  and  priestly  records. 

The  material  is  printed  as  divided  among  the  sources 
in :  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  95,  96, 102  ff., 
379—381;  Carpenter  and  Battersby,  "  Hexateucli,"  II., 
pages  37  ff. ;  Bacon,  "  Genesis  of  Gen.,"  pages  152  ff. 
The  analysis  is  presented  in :  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb. 
Hist.,"  pages  xv-xvii ;  Carp,  and  Bat.,  "  Hex.,"  11.,  pages 
273,  274  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  62, 
63  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  15,  16 ;  Hastings, 
''Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  page  526,  col.  a. 

(2)  Origin  and  Historical  Basis  of  the  Traditions. 

Read  articles  on  Isaac,  Jacob,  Esau,  Edom,  in  Has- 
tings, "  Diet.  l^,ib."  or  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  also  Hastings,  II., 
page  147  ;  Baton,  "Early  Hist.  Syr.  and  Pal.,"  page  124 ; 


54  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  8-12,  22,  23 ; 
Driver,  "Genesis,"  pages  xliii-Lxi ;  Cornill,  "Hist. 
Peop.  Isr.,"  pages  29-37 ;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.," 
ch.  iii.  In  reading,  try  to  secure  definite  impressions 
regarding:  (1)  significance  of  double  names;  (2)  the 
question  whether  Isaac,  Jacob,  Esau,  and  the  twelve 
sons  of  Jacob  represent  individuals  or  tribes ;  (3)  the 
clan  or  tribal  movements  reflected  in  either  case ; 
(4)  tribal  relationships  indicated ;  (5)  early  history 
implied,  if  tribal ;  (6)  later  Hebrew  history  intermin- 
gled ;  (7)  reflection  of  Israel's  spiritual  experiences  in 
the  narratives. 

(3)  Leading  Ideas  of  the  Narratives. 

Note  :  (1)  the  character  ascribed  to  Isaac,  to  Esau  ; 
(2)  defects  and  elements  of  strength  in  the  Jacob  of 
earlier  days ;  (3)  the  years  of  discipline  ;  (4)  turning- 
point  of  Jacob's  spiritual  career,  32^-32 ;  (5)  his  charac- 
ter in  later  life ;  (6)  the  representative  character  of  his 
portrait ;  (7)  some  of  the  religious  truths  illustrated  by 
the  stories.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  determine  just 
how  far  those  who  pictured  these  characters  approved 
the  conduct  recorded,  but  it  should  be  possible  to  form 
an  impression  on  this  subject,  fairly  correct  in  its  broad 
outlines. 

Notice  the  interesting  data  relating  to  (1)  questions 
of  primogeniture  and  inheritance ;  (2)  religious  cus- 
toms, such  as  Jacob's  commemoration  of  his  religious 
experience  by  erecting  a  pillar ;  (3)  customs  of  mar- 
riage; (4)  covenants  between  n)en  or  tribes. 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  55 

3.    Stories  Associated  ivitJi  Joseph.     Genesis,  37-50. 

(1)  Composite  Character  and  Contents  of  the  Narra- 
tives. 

The  division  between  the  prophetic  and  priestly 
sources  is  as  follows : 

JE.  372-46'^        462S-47*  47*^^  4712-27* 

p^  371  46^~2"  475,6a  47'"11  472Tb,28 

JE.       472^32  48"-22  49lb-28a  4933b_50ll         5014-26 

p^  48'5^'5  49 1'''  4928b-33a  5012-13 

In  readint^  this  portion  of  Genesis,  note  how  the  story 
is  given  in  JE  and  supplemented  by  P.  The  Biblical 
material  is  printed  as  divided  among  the  sources  in 
Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  124  £f. ;  Carpen- 
ter and  Battersby,  "Hex.,"  II.,  pages  58  ff. ;  Bacon, 
"Genesis  of  Gen.,"  pages  185 ff.  The  analysis  is  pre- 
sented in  :  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  xvii, 
xviii,  Carp,  and  Bat.,  "  Hex.,"  L,  pages  274,  275 ;  Ben- 
nett and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int. ,"  page  63  ;  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.O.  T.,"  pages  17,  159;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  II., 
page  767,  col.  a. 

(2)  Origin  and  Historical  Basis  of  the  Traditions. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references:  Has- 
tings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  article  "Joseph,"  also  II.,  page  147, 
col.  b. ;  "  Erie.  Bib.,"  article  "  Joseph  "  ;  Kent,  "  Begin- 
nings Heb.  Hist.,"  page  23  ;  Driver,  "  Genesis,"  pages 
xliii-lxi ;  Kittel,  "  Hist  Hebs.,"  L,  pages  183-191 ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  52-56  ;  Maspero, "  Struggle 
Nations,"  pages  69-72  ;  Breasted,  "  Hist.  Egypt,"  pages 
229,  243,  244,  446,  447,  455.  In  reading,  note :  (1)  (he 
bearing  of  the  archasological  exactness  of  the  story  on 


56  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

its  historical  value  ;  (2)  chronological  indications  given 
by  Egyptian  names  ;  (3)  the  question  whether  the  nar- 
rative is  a  somewhat  idealized  story  of  a  Hebrew  vizier 
in  the  time  of  the  Hyksos  or  of  Amenhotep  lY., 
whether  it  reflects  the  migration  of  a  certain  group  of 
tribes  to  Egypt,  or  both  ;  (4)  the  tribal  history  indicated, 
especially  in  Genesis  49. 

(3).    The  Leading  Ideas  of  the  Narratives. 

Consider :  (1)  the  character  attributed  to  Joseph,  in 
personal  relationships  and  as  a  man  of  affairs.  Did  he 
represent  an  advance  in  ethical  ideals  ?  (2)  the  better 
side  of  the  portrait  of  the  brothers,  as  mirrored  in  the 
generous  plea  of  Judah,  ch.  44  ;  (3)  the  epitomization 
of  the  character  of  each  tribe  in  Gen.  49  (compare, 
for  a  parallel,  Deut.  33)  ;  (4)  the  clear  recognition  of 
the  Divine  guidance  of  all  this  history. 

Notice  also  the  data  relating  to  :  (1)  Egyptian  relig- 
ious customs ;  (2)  Egyptian  social  and  political  life. 

4.    Genesis  as  a  Whole. 

(1)  Literary  Analysis. 

Formulate  briefly  the  probable  facts  as  to  the  com- 
position of  Genesis  from  three  principal  sources,  noting 
what  characteristics  of  the  book  are  due  to  the  pro- 
phetic and  what  to  the  priestly  elements.  Notice  how 
this  theory  of  literary  origin  relieves  the  enormous 
difficulties  of  Genesis,  e.  g.  the  curious  mingling  of  the 
most  primitive  with  very  highly  developed  conceptions 
of  God  in  his  dealings  with  men,  the  frequent  duplica- 
tions of  narrative,  and  the  intermingling  of  varied  lit- 
erary styles  in  the  same  chapter. 

An  interesting  analogy,  wliich  fully  justifies  the 
methods  of  historical  and  literary  growth  assumed  in 


FOIIRIATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  57 

this  theory,  will  be  met  when  the  study  of  the  books 
of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  is  undertaken. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  analysis,  reference  may 
be  made  to  :  Kent,"  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  21- 
23  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  H.,  pages  143-146  ;  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  8-13,  19-21,  "  Genesis,"  pages 
iii-xxv;  McFadyen,  •' Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  8-16;  "Mes- 
sages Proph.  and  Priest  Histns.,"  pages  5-20. 

(2)   Literary  Synthesis. 

Notice :  (1)  how  the  genealogies  from  the  priestly 
source  form  a  framework  for  the  whole,  into  which  the 
prophetic  narratives  are  fitted  (see  2**,  5^,  6^  10^,  ll^*^, 
1127, 2512,  2519,  369, 372^) .  (^2)  how  the  lines  of  Ham  and 
Japheth  are  dropped  after  a  few  generations  and  that 
of  Shem  is  carried  on,  and  then,  how  the  line  of  Terali 
is  selected  for  especial  record  ;  (3)  how,  also  among 
Abraham's  descendants,  the  side  lines  are  traced  for  a 
short  distance  only,  while  the  main  interest  is  centred 
in  the  line  of  Jacob.  In  view  of  these  facts,  consider 
the  compiler's  purpose  in  relation  to  the  national  his- 
tory of  Israel.  Recall  the  various  religious  institutions 
whose  traditional  origin  is  recorded  in  the  priestly  sec- 
tions of  Genesis,  and  consider  the  purpose  of  the  com- 
piler in  reference  to  the  history  of  Israel's  ritual. 
Review  the  conceptions  of  Genesis  as  to  God's  relation 
to  human  history  and  as  to  the  moral  ideals  of  human 
life,  and  consider  the  significance  of  Genesis  in  its 
moral  and  spiritual  teachings.  Select  some  passages 
in  the  book  notaljle  :  (1 )  as  description  ;  (2)  as  charac- 
ter sketching ;  (3)  for  pathos,  or  eloquence.  Try  to 
discover  :  (1)  the  epic  element  in  the  literature  ;  (2)  the 
real  secret  of  the  book's  powerful  hold  on  the  human 
mind  and  heart. 


58  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

For  discussion  of  Genesis  as  a  literary  whole,  from 
various  points  of  view,  reference  may  be  made  to  : 
Driver,  "  Genesis,"    pages    i-iii,  Ixi-lxxiv,  "  Int.   Lit. 

0.  T.,"  pages  6-8  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  pages 
143,  col.  a,  147,  col.  b,  148 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.," 
pages  1-7,  17,  "  Messages  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.," 
pages  27-32  ;  Hazard-Fowler,  "  Bks.  of  Bib.  and  Their 
Place  in  Hist.,"  pages  6-8  ;  Moulton,  "  Int.  to  Lit.  Bib.," 
pages  23-30,  "  Lit.  Study  Bib.,"  page  446. 

§  22.   Period  op  the  Exodus. 

1.  Sources. 

(1)    The  Biblical  Narrative.     Exodus  1-192^ 
Read  the  narrative  as  divided  among  the   sources, 
(1)   making  a  brief   outline  of  the  contents  of  each 
strand,  and  (2)  noting  striking  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences in  the  three. 
The  analysis  is  : 

J^              ^6          I7b-12         jUa                     jaob  2ll~23» 

J]                                                                 llo-20a       121,22  2^~'^^       2'^^^''^^ 

P.  1^"^       1'*  1^^  l^*** 

J               32-4a          340          36          37,8           3I6-I8  ^1-16  419,20a 

E     3^  3*''      3^**      3^       39-15         319  22      417, 18 


J. 

422 

-26        429 

-31          53        56.gl               714        716,17a 

E. 

420b,21 

427,25 

51-2      54                                 7I6               717b 

P. 

62-713 

J. 

•jrlB 

721a 

724.34       8^"^^*        320-97 

E. 

720b 

723 

P. 

719,203 

721b, 22                      §5-7            3l5b-19           98-12 

J       913-^1  923b         g24b  925b-30         933,34  lO^^^' 

g  922,23a         924^  925a  931,32  935  1012,13a 

P. 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  59 

J.  lO^^**  XO^^^'^^*         IQlSc-W  lQ2i-2S       102^'29         ll**^ 

E.  10^^*  IQl^b  1020-23  1027  111-3 

P. 

J.  1221-27         1229-34  1237b-39  133-I6 

E.  1235^36  1317-19 

P.  119-1220  1228  1237a  124051  131,2 

J.  1321.22  145,6       147b  1410a 

E.  143  14"'»      14"c      148b  1410b 

P.     1320  141.2  144  148a  149 

J.   1411-1*  1419b         1420b         1421b 

JJ_  1415a  1416a  l419a  1420a 

P  1415b  1416b-18  1421a 

J^  1424  a  1425  1427b  1428b 

E.  1423a  1424b 

p      1421c,22  1423b  2426.27a  1428a  1429 

J        1430  1522-25a  1527  161a 

E.  I43I-I5I9  1525b,26  16!,5  1614b,15 

p_  1520,21  161b-3       166-14        1616-20 

J.  171b       172b.3       177a  192a 

E.  1621     162"-3o       1635^  17i'='2*    171  '^    17'''-182' 

p.         1622   2ti       1631-34       1635b.l7la  I9I 

The  chapters  are  printed  as  divided  among  the 
sources  in  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  151 
ff. ;  Carpenter  and  Battersby,  "  Hex.,"  H.,  pages  79  ff. ; 
Bacon,  "  Triple  Tradit.  Ex.,"  pages  11  fe.  The  analy- 
sis is  presented  in  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.," 
pages  xviii-xx,  xxii ;  Carp,  and  But.,  "  Hex.,"  I.,  pages 
275,  276  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  64, 
65  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.',  pages  806-808  ;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  22-30. 


60  HEBKEW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Frequent  reference  to  the  sojourn  in  Egy])t  is  made 
in  other  books  of  the  Bible,  e.  g.  I.  Sam.  2^",  6^,  Am.  9^, 
Hos.  Ill,  1213,  134^  iga.  1024,  Mic.  63-4,  71^  Jer.  2«,  7^5, 
Ezek.  206.',  Isa.  43  i6,i7,  519,10^  esu. 

(2)  Monumental  References. 

Stele  of  Merneptah  referring  to  Israel  as  desolated. 
See :  Breasted,  "  Hist.  Egypt,"  pages  470,  471  ;  Hast- 
ings, "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  665;  Paton,  "  Earlv  Hist. 
Syr.  and  Pal.,"  page  134. 

Identification   of   Pithom.     See :    Hastings,   "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  III.,  art.     "Pithom";   "  Enc.    Bib.,"   III.,  art. 
"Pithom;"  Price,  "  Mons.   and  O.  T.,"  pages   116- 
119 ;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  I.,  pages  253-255, 
2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

The  background  in  Egyptian  history  was  given  under 
§  9,  2.  For  the  Hebrew  history  read,  at  least,  one  of 
the  following  :  Kittel, "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  I.,  pages  183-197, 
203-207,  215-217,  222-228,  256-262 ;  Wade,  "  0.  T. 
Hist.,"  pages  98-114 ;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.," 
pages  57-67.  Of  these,  Kittel  and  Wade  seem  to  re- 
gard the  Hebrew  traditions  as  containing  a  larger  ker- 
nel of  historic  fact  tlian  Smith  ascribes  to  them.  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  United  Kgdm.,"  pages  36,  37  gives 
a  very  brief  account  of  this  period  of  the  history.  In 
reading,  note  :  (1)  arguments  as  to  historical  character 
of  the  sojourn  ;  (2)  views  as  to  whether,  if  historical, 
it  involved  all  the  tribes;  (3)  its  probable  duration; 

(4)  question  as  to  which  Egyptian  ruler  was  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  which  of  the  exodus  ; 

(5)  different  views  as  to  the  reality  and  extent  of  our 
historical  knowledge  of  Moses ;  (6)  different  views  as 
to  location  of  Sinai  and  consequent  route  of  Israel's 
march  thither. 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  61 

0.  The  Religious  Value  of  the  Exodus  Narrative. 

Notice  (1)  the  conception  of  Moses  as  providentially 
made  ready  for  the  woi'k  of  deliverance  ;  (2)  the  part 
played  by  God  in  the  deliverance  ;  (3)  the  unrespon- 
siveness of  the  people. 

§  23.   Period  of  the  Wilderness  Sojourn. 

1.  Sources.     Exodus  192''-40,  Numbers. 

In  the  Biblical  narrative  from  Genesis  1  to  Exodus 
19^  we  have  Israel's  traditions  regarding  the  beginnings 
of  human  history  and  the  wanderings  of  her  tribal 
ancestors,  down  to  the  arrival  at  Sinai.  In  the  latter 
part  of  this  narrative  a  little  strictly  legal  material  has 
been  found,  but  from  this  point  forward  the  tradition 
embodies  organized  codes  of  law,  treating  them  as 
given  at  Sinai  or  just  before  the  entrance  into  Canaan. 

It  is  now  almost  universally  recognized  among  his- 
torians of  Israel  that  these  codes  did  not  appear  com- 
plete within  one  generation,  but  that  they,  ratlier, 
represent  a  development  of  centuries  in  Israel's  politi- 
cal and  religious  history.  In  the  present  course  of 
study,  each  of  the  great  codes  will  be  examined  in 
connection  with  that  general  period  of  the  history  in 
which  it  is  believed  to  have  been  codified.  Leviticus 
and  Deuteronomy,  together  with  the  legal  material  of 
Exodus,  are  accordingly  omitted  from  the  sources  for 
the  period  of  the  wilderness  sojourn.  In  addition  to 
these  legal  sections,  we  omit  from  the  sources  of  the 
present  period  a  considerable  amount  of  matter  in 
Exodus  and  Numbers  which  concerns  itself  with  long 
and  minute  descriptions  of  Levitical  arrangements,  such 
as  were  realized  only  centuries  later.     The  remainder 


62  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

of  the  Biblical  material  should  be  read  as  assigned  to 
the  several  documents  in  the  following  analysis  : 

J.  19" '8  1911b-13a  1918  1920-25 

^        192b-6  199-lla  I9W-IT         1919         20^^^^"'  ^^^'  ^^^ 

P. 

J.  241.  2  249-11 

E.     222^~^i  231^'  1^'  i^*»  1^^'  ^"-"^  24^'  ^*'  ^^'  ^'^ 

P. 

J.  3313*      3312-23 

E^     2412-15'^      2418"  3118b    32     333b-ii 

P.        24i^i''"i*^*     251-^     29*^-^     3118* 

J         341-11*'   14a,  17,  18a,  19a,  20c,  21a,  22a,  c,  25-28 

E. 

p^  3429-35     354,  20-33 

J. 
E. 

P.      4017-38 

Numbers. 

J  1029-33  1035,6         ll^-l^         1118-24a  1131-35 

E.  111-3  1116,17  1124b-30 

P.       1011-28  103* 

J  1216  1317b  I3I8.I9  1322  1327a 

E.     121-15  13i'«        IS^o.si'^  1323'21  132"»> 

p_  131-17a  1325,26a 

J.       1328       1330.31  141c    143  148  1411-24 

E.        1329      1333     IV^  144  149'^      1425 

P.  1332     14>''         142         145-7       149*     1410 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  63 

J.  1431-33  l(31b,  2a  1612-15  1625,2G 

E.  1439b-45 

P.       1426-30  1434-39a  101a        l^Sb-ll  IQ^^'^i 

J.       162"l^-31a,32a  1633,34  20^  201*~1^ 

E. 

P.       le^"-*  lG32b  1635-18"  201'^.  2.  8b,  4       OQ^-IS 

J        20^^'2^  202'b  21^^^  211^~20         212>*'  30 

g  2021=*  2022*  21'"''"^'  llli'lS  2121^24a 

p.  20  22b-29 

J.  21^2  223^'*  225"^'^*     22'^        22^1       22i'^'i^ 

E.     2131         222.3a  22^^        22«»'       22*^"io    22i2-i6 

P.  221 

D.  2133-35 

J.  2221''  2222-36  223'1>  2239  232'-30 

E.     2219^1*        222i«        2237a        2238      22^o,4i     23i"26 
P. 

J.     241-19     251^-2        253i'.4  3239-42 

E.         2126  251*      253a      255 

p.  25«-i8      26,    2712-2331^    321-38  33^  34 

The  chapters  are  printed  as  divided  among  the  sources 
in  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  177  If.  and, 
with  the  omitted  portions  all  included,  in  Carpenter 
and  Battersby,  "Hex.,"  H.,  pages  109  ff . ;  Bacon, 
"  Triple  Tradit.  Ex.,"  pages  101  ff.  The  analysis  is 
presented  in  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages 
xx-xxiv  ;  Car.  and  Bat.,  "Hex.,"  I.,  pages  276,  277; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  65-71 ;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  30-32,  60-69;  Hastings, 
"Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  808,  HI.,  pages  568-571. 


64  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  one  of  the  following :  Kittel,  "  Hist. 
Hebs.,"  I.,  pages  197-203,  207-215,  217-222,  228-252  ; 
Wade,  "0.  T.    Hist.,"  pages   114-133;  H.  P.  Smith, 
"  0.  T.  Hist,"  pages  67-72  ;  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop., 
Un.  Kgdm.,"  pages  38-45.     In  reading,  note  :  (1)  the 
probable  duration  of  the  stay  at  Sinai  and  its  signifi- 
cance ;  (2)  the  picture  of  the  tent  of  meeting  in  the 
earlier  account,  its  simple  arrangements  and  location 
relative  to  the  camp;  (3)  the   journey  from  Sinai  to 
Kadesh  ;  (4)  location  of  Kadesh  ;  (5)  real  significance 
for  Israel  of  the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  ;  (6)  pos- 
sible attempt  on   Palestine  from   the   south ;  (7)  the 
route  from  Kadesh  to  the  plains  east  of  the  Jordan ; 
(8)  conquest  of  the  Amorite  territory  ;  (9)  the  Balaam 
incident;  (10)  war   with  Midian  ;  (11)  settlement  of 
east  Jordan  tribes  ;  (12)  real  work  of  Moses  for  Israel. 

3.    The  Religious  Value  of  the  Narratives  of  the  Sojourn. 

Notice:  (1)  the  portrait  of  Moses  the  leader;  (2)  the 
solemn  covenant  entered  upon  between  Jehovah  and 
Israel  ;  (3)  the  great  religious  advance  which  this 
covenant  marked. 

Reference  may  be  made  to :  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
III.,  art.  "  Moses  "  ;  Kent,  "  Messages  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.," 
pages  11-14  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  in  Jewish  Church," 
pages  302-304,  311  £f. 

§  24.   Conquest  of  Canaan. 
1.     Geographical  Background. 

(1)   Physical  Features  of  the  Land. 

Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  People,  Un.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
18-26  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Histor.  Geog.  Holy  Land,"  pages 
45-59. 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  65 

While  reading,  refer  constantly  to  map,  Smith,  p.  51. 
Note :  (1)  the  length  and  breadth  of  Palestine ;  (2) 
the  six  zones  or  sections  of  the  land  (Smith  makes 
seven  by  including  the  Ncgeb  or  "  South")  ;  (3)  four- 
fold division  of  the  regions  inhabited  by  Israel  ;  (4) 
mountains  and  rivers  ;  (5)  variations  of  temperature  ; 
((3)  names  used  in  0.  T.  for  peculiar  features  of  the 
land,  Shephelah  ("lowland"),  Negeb  ("South  coun- 
try "),  the  Mountain  ("  hill  country "),  the  Arabah 
(Jordan  valley),  cf.  Jud.  P,  Deut.  1',  Josh.  10^  11^ 
128,  j^,jf}  Q  ^_  Smith,  "Histor.  Gcog.  Holy  Land," 
pages  651,  652;  (7)  adaptation  of  Palestine  as  a 
home  for  Israel. 

(2)    Political  Division  of  the  Land. 

Near  the  close  of  §  9  the  general  political  condition 
of  Palestine  toward  the  end  of  the  Egyptian  dominance 
was  indicated.  It  is  necessary  now  to  note,  in  more 
detail,  the  political  division  of  Canaan  just  before  Israel 
entered  the  land.  Read:  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext. 
Vol.,  pages  73  col.  b  to  78  col.  b. ;  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Un.  Kgdm.,"  pages  27-32.  At  the  same  time, 
carefully  note  the  division  of  the  land  as  roughly  rep- 
resented on  the  map,  Plate  11.  An  excellent  sum- 
mary of  the  political  history  of  Canaan  for  a  few 
generations  prior  to  the  entrance  of  Israel  will  be  found 
in  Paton,  "  Early  Hist.  Syr.  and  Pal.,"  pages  122-150. 
Short  accounts  of  the  conditions  in  Palestine,  favorable 
to  the  entrance  of  Israel,  are  given  in  McCurdy,"  Hist. 
Pi-oph.,  and  Mons.,"  I.,  pages  221-227 ;  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Heb.  Peop.,  Un.  Kgdm.,"  §  39. 


66      HEBREW  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

2.    Sources.     Joshua.,  Judges  1-2^. 

(1)  Joshua  1-12. 

Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un.  Kgdra.,"  latter 
part  of  §  32  and  §  33 ;  then  read  the  account  of  the 
conquest  of  the  land  given  in  Joshua  1-12.  This  nar- 
rative is  predominantly  JE  with  later  prophetic  addi- 
tions. The  following  passages  should  be  especially 
noticed  as  coming  from  the  priestly  history :  3V,8,i3b,i5b, 
i6a,i7a,  49,10,1217,19,  510-12^  The  scctiou  is  printed  as  di- 
vided among  the  sources  (early  Judean,  later  Judean, 
early  Ephraimite,  late  prophetic,  late  priestly)  in  Kent, 
"  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  255  ff.,  and,  as  ana- 
lyzed somewhat  differently,  in  Carpenter  and  Battersby, 
"  Hex.,"  H.,  pages  320  ff. 

(2)  Judges  1-25. 

Read  and  compare  with  Joshua  1-12  the  parallel 
account  in  Judges  1-2^,  assigned  to  the  early  Judean 
prophetic  narrative  (J). 

(3)  Joshua  23-24. 

Joshua  13-22  consists  of  an  account  of  the  ideal 
allotment  of  the  land,  largely  from  the  late  priestly 
source.  Read  chapters  23,  24.  23  is  assigned  to  a 
late  prophetic  writer,  and  24  to  the  early  Ephraimite 
prophetic  narrative  (E).  The  analysis  of  the  above 
material  is  given  in  Kent,  "Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.," 
pages  xxiv-xxvii ;  Carpenter  and  Battersby,  "  Hex.,"  I., 
page  279  (Joshua  only)  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  80-82.  86;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.,  0.  T.," 
pages  105-113,  162,  163;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  II., 
pages  780-783,  814,  col.  b. 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW  HISTORY  67 

3.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  criticallv  one  of  the  following  accounts  of  the 
period  :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Ileb.  Peop.,  Un.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
59-70;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  PJebs.,"  I.,  pages  254-312;  H.P. 
Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  v. ;  Wade,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch. 
vi.  While  reading,  seek  to  secure  a  clear  impression  of 
the  various  theories  regarding  the  conquest  of  western 
Palestine:  (1)  theory  of  the  final  editors  of  Joshua, 
which  dominates  the  book  as  a  whole,  that,  under 
Joshua's  lead,  all  Israel  subdued  the  whole  land  speed- 
ily (I410),  destroying  the  Canaanites  ;  (2)  theory  based 
upon  Judges  1  that  the  conquest  was  a  very  gradual 
and  relatively  peaceful  occupation  of  western  Palestine 
by  settlement  and  only  incidental  warfare  ;  (3)  a  theory 
based  on  the  earlier  sources,  but  not  disregarding  the 
later,  that  united  Israel  under  Joshua  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, got  a  footing,  and  then  proceeded  by  detachments 
to  conquer  the  land,  but  with  somewhat  meagre  results. 
For  a  graphic  presentation  of  the  results  of  the  con- 
quest, see  map,  Plate  IT.,  and,  for  the  general  location 
of  each  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  after  the  conquest,  see 
map  in  "Kent,  "  Un.  Kgdm.,"  page  50. 

A  trenchant  critique  of  (2)  will  be  found  in  G.  A- 
Smith,  "  Hist.  Geog.  Holy  Land,"  pages  659-662. 
Paton's  discussion  in  "  Syr.  and  Pal.,"  pages  150-155, 
is  well  worth  studying. 

4.  The  Religious  Value  of  the  Narratives  of  the   Con- 

quest. 

Notice :  (1)  the  conception  that  the  land  of  Canaan 
was  Divinely  granted  to  Israel.  Was  this  ethically 
sound  ?     (2)  the  concei)tion  of  the  struggles  with  the 


68      HEBREV^  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

Canaanites  as  a  holy  war  in  which  the  Hebrews  were 
executing  God's  will ;   (3)  Joshua  as  a  national  hero. 

The  discussion  of  the  Hexateuch  as  a  whole  is  re- 
served until  §  38,  when  it  can  be  considered  with  fullest 
profit. 

§  25.   Period  op  the  Judges. 
1.    Sources.     Judges  2^-21 ;  Ruth;  First  Samuel  1-7. 

(1)  Judges  20-21. 

In  connection  with  Kent,  "Hist.  Hob.  Poop.,  Un. 
Kgdm.,"  §§  32,  31-37,  read  Judges  26-21,  or  read  these 
chapters  as  they  are  arranged  in  Kent,  "  beginnings 
Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  277,  300-310,  315-316.  Discussion 
of  the  structure  and  contents  of  Judges  will  also  be 
found  in  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  26,  27  ; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  82-87  ;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  160-172;  McFadyen,  "Int. 
0.  T.,"  pages  76-83 ;  "  Messages  Proph.  and  Priest. 
Histns.,"  pages  121-126;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bih,"  IL, 
art.  "  Judges  "  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  II.,  art.  "  Judges  "  ;  Moore, 
"  Judges,"  in  "  Internat.  Grit.  Com.,"  pages  xiii-xxxv. 

(2)  Ruth. 

Read  the  book  of  Ruth  and  note :  (1)  the  idealized 
picture  of  the  age  of  the  Judges  given  by  it  in  contrast 
to  Jud.  17-21;  (2)  the  Davidic  genealogy  given.  For 
late  date,  idealized  character  of  the  narrative,  and  other 
aspects  of  this  book,  see :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  87-89  ;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  453- 
456;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  290-293,  "Mes- 
sages Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  335,  336. 

(3)  First  Samuel  1-7. 

In  connection  with  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un. 
Kgdm.,"  §  38,  read  First  Samuel  1-7,  or  read  these 


FORMATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  69 

chapters  as  they  are  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and 
Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  51-62,  Qo,  6G,  70-7-i.  The  sources 
and  contents  of  these  chapters  are  discussed  also  in 
Bennett  and  Adenej,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  89-91 ;  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.,  0.  T.,"  pages  172-174. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  one  of  the  following  accounts  :  Kent, 
«  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un.  Kgdm.,"  pages  71-98  ;  Kittel, 
"  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  1-22,  60-111 ;  Wade,  "  0.  T. 
Hist.,"  ch.  vii. ;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  vi. 
In  reading,  seek  to  secure  as  clear  an  impression  as 
possible  of:  (1)  the  relation  of  Israel  to  the  earlier  in- 
habitants of  the  land  during  this  period ;  (2)  the  local 
character  and  real  nature  of  a  "  Judge's  "  rule  ;  (3) 
the  first  recorded  attempt  at  an  hereditary  monarchy 
in  Israel ;  (4)  the  indefiniteness  of  the  data  of  the 
chronology  of  the  period ;  (5)  the  straits  to  which 
Israel  was  reduced  by  the  Philistines  at  the  close  of  the 
period;  (6)  significance,  from  the  sociological  point  of 
view,  of  the  change  from  nomadic  to  agricultural  life ; 
(7)  the  actual  state  of  society  during  the  period. 

3.    Religious  Value  of  the  Narratives  of  the  Judges. 

Notice :  (1)  the  religious  importance  of  the  transition 
from  the  nomadic  to  the  agricultural  type  of  civiliza- 
tion. Read  Smith,  "  Hist.  Geog./'  pages  88-90 ;  (2)  the 
religious  motives  which  gradually  united  the  independ- 
ent tribes ;  (3)  the  various  types  of  national  heroes 
commemorated  ;  (4)  the  elements  of  ethical  soundness 
and  strength  in  the  life  of  Israel  in  this  period. 

Was  it,  on  the  whole,  a  period  of  retrogression,  as 
one   might,  perhaps,  infer  from  a  cursory  reading  of 


70  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

the   Judges   narratives,  or  a  period   of   advance   and 
upbuilding  ? 

§  26.   Beginnings  of  Hebrew  Literature. 
1.   Early  Poetry. 

We  have  no  knowledge  of  any  Hebrew  book  com- 
posed before  the  monarchy.  Reasons  for  this  fact  are 
not  far  to  seek.  Neither  the  conditions  of  the  earlier 
nomad  life,  nor  of  the  periods  of  the  conquest  and  the 
Judges,  were  favorable  for  formal  literary  activity.  The 
conditions  were  such  as  have  produced  in  other  nations 
primitive  song  and  story,  written  only  on  the  tablets  of 
memory  and  transmitted  orally. 

Before  the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  possibly  the 
Song  of  the  Well  (Num.  21^'~i^),  the  nucleus  of  the 
Song  of  Triumph  (Ex.  15'^^^),  and  the  Song  of  Deborah 
(Jud.  5)  had  already  been  written  ;  certainly  they  had 
been  sung  and  repeated  again  and  again.  Jotham's 
Fable  (Jud.  98-^5)  and  Samson's  Riddles  (Jud.  14".i8 
15^°)  had  also  assumed  fixed  form.  The  words  of  those 
that  speak  in  proverbs  (Num.  2P'^^*^)  and  the  Song  of 
Lamech  (Gen.  4^3,24^^  together  with  the  passage  concern- 
ing the  Ark  (Num.  10^^-'^^'),  should  perhaps  be  included  as 
relics  of  ancient  popular  poetry,  antedating  the  king- 
dom. The  only  long  poem  coming,  in  anything  like  its 
entirety,  from  this  age  is  the  Song  of  Deborah.  The 
others  included  in  the  narratives  from  Genesis  to  First 
Samuel  7,  such  as  Jacob's  Blessing  (Gen.  49),  the 
Balaam  Oracles  (Num.  23,  24),  the  Song  of  Miriam 
(Exod.  15),  as  a  whole,  all  give  indications  of  com- 
pletion at  a  later  time. 

Read  (preferably  from  Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb. 
Hist.")    Num.   21i''i8,  Ex.  IS^-is,  Jud.    5,    Jud.   98-i5^ 


FOR-MATIVE   AGE   OF   HEBREW   HISTORY  71 

Jud.  l-i"'i3,  I516,  Num.  212T-30^  Gen.  423.2S  Num.  lO^s-ss, 
noting  :  (1)  the  parallelism  of  lines  in  Hebrew  poetry  ; 
(2)  subject  and  spirit  of  each  poem  or  fragment ;  (3) 
dramatic  qualities  in  the  Song  of  Deborah.  For  brief 
introductions  to  the  study  of  Hebrew  poetry,  see : 
Hastings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IK.,  art.  "  Poetry  "  ;  "Enc.  Bib.," 
III.,  art.  '"Poetical  Lit.";  McFadyen,  "Messages  of 
Psalmists,"  pages  9-16;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages 
359-367. 

2.  Oral  Traditions. 

Aside  from  songs  and  other  brief  utterances  that  had 
assumed  fixed,  perhaps  written,  form  before  the  time  of 
Saul,  the  peo{)le  of  Israel  inherited  a  large  mass  of 
ancient  lore  in  the  form  of  traditions  concerning  the 
arigin  of  the  universe  and  of  civilization,  the  relation- 
ships of  tribes,  the  selection  of  sacred  sites,  the  rise  of 
religious  customs,  the  wanderings  of  ancestral  clans, 
and  the  deeds  of  early  heroes.  Not  improbably  the 
oldest  of  these  traditions  were  once  current  in  poetic 
form. 

3.  Germs  of  Legal  Literature. 

In  this  early  age  there  were  also  traditional  customs 
precepts,  and  legal  decisions,  some  of  which  may  have 
been  grouped  ali'eady  into  primitive  codes ;  at  least  seven 
of  the  commands  in  the  decalogue  of  Ex.  Sl^^'^e  ^a^^ 
easily  have  been  formulated  in  this  age.  No  definite 
declaration  can  be  made,  on  the  basis  of  existing  mate- 
rial, concerning  the  legal  usages  of  the  days  of  Moses  ; 
all  must  be  conjectural. 

4.  Absence  of  Connected  Narratives. 

The  outlines  of  the  Formative  Age  of  Hebrew  his- 
tory in  the  i)rcscnt  course  of  study  are  based  upon  the 


72  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

supposition  that  in  much  of  the  primitive  material  there 
are  recorded  historic  facts,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  compilation  of  these  materials  in  any  connected 
form  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the  age  before  the  rise 
of  the  kingdom.  An  analysis  of  the  narrative  from 
Genesis  to  Judges  carries  us  centuries  nearer  the 
events  than  the  times  in  which  the  Hexateuch  and 
Judges  assumed  their  present  form,  but  even  the  early 
Judean  history  (J)  was  compiled  after  the  period  of 
Solomon. 

For  furtlier  discussion  of  the  primitive  literature, 
consult :  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  3-17 ; 
Kautzsch,  "Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  1-9;  Peters,  "Early 
Heb.  Story,"  pages  1-26.  (The  last  reference  deals 
with  the  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  age  of 
the  kingdom,  but  contains  much  material  pertinent  to 
the  present  section.) 


IV 

AGE  OF  UNITED   KINGDOM 

§  27.   Period  op  Saul. 
1.    Sources.     First  Samuel  8-31. 

In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Pcop.,  Un. 
Kgdm.,"  §§  73-79,  read  First  Samuel  8-31,  or  read 
these  chapters,  as  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog. 
Nars.,"  pages  62-111,  in  connection  with  pages  5,  6, 
10-14. 

Discussion  of  the  structure  and  contents  of  Samuel 
will  be  found  also  in  :  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II.,  pages 
22-45  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  89-93 ; 
Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  172-181 ;  McFadyen, 
"Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  84-90,  "Messages  Proph.  and 
Priest.  Ilistns.,"  pages  139-143;  Hastings,  "Diet, 
Bib.,"  IV.,  art.  "Samuel  I.,  II.";  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  IV. 
art.  "  Samuel,  Books " ;  II.  P.  Smith,  "  Samuel,"  in 
"Internat.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages  xii-xxvi. 

The  principal  fact  which  the  careful  student  must 
grasp  is  the  composite  charactei'  of  the  narrative,  as 
one  reads  it  to-day.  Its  author  drew  upon  groups  of 
traditions  regarding  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David,  probably 
in  written  form,  not  always  alike.  Rather  tlian  reduce 
them  to  uniformity  he  often  set  them  side  by  side. 
This  habit  of  the  prophet-historian  we  may  thank  for 
our  opportunity  to  enter  discriminatingly  upon  the 
study  of  early  Hebrew  history. 


74  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

In  reading,  note  carefully  the  differences  between  the 
older  and  later  accounts  of:  (1)  Samuel's  position  or 
function  in  Israel  and  his  attitude  toward  the  establish- 
ment of  the  kingdom  ;  (2)  Saul's  rejection  ;  (3)  David's 
introduction  to  Saul  ;  (4)  origin  of  proverb  concerning 
Saul  among  the  prophets  ;  (5)  David's  regard  for  Saul's 
life ;  (6)  David's  flight  to  Philistia.  Note  also  the 
method  of  the  Septuagint  in  dealing  with  an  inconsist- 
ent narrative  (see  Kent,  "  Un.  Kgdm.,"  page  105,  and 
Septuagint  of  1  Sam.  IS^  30). 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  discus- 
sions of  Saul's  reign :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un, 
Kgdm.,"  pages  113-135;  Kittel,  "Hist.  Hobs.,"  II., 
pages  111-137 ;  Wade,  «  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  viii. ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  vii. 

While  reading,  try  to  secure  a  clear  impression  of : 
(1)  the  conditions  and  forces,  within  and  without  the 
Hebrews,  which  led  to  the  monarchy  ;  (2)  Saul's  fitness 
for  leadership  ;  (3)  approximate  date  of  beginning  of 
his  reign  ;  (4)  Saul's  opportunity  to  prove  himself,  and 
his  first  achievements  ;  (5)  causes  of  Saul's  failure ; 
(6)  David's  early  life  ;  (7)  his  experiences  at  the  court ; 
(8)  his  outlaw  career :  its  impulse,  experiences,  and 
value  ;  (9)  history  and  significance  of  battle  of  Gilboa  ; 
(10)  rudimentary  character  of  royal  government  under 
Saul ;  (11)  constructive  results  of  Saul's  reign. 

3.  Religious  Significance  of  the  History. 

The  First  Book  of  Samuel  is  a  remarkable  example 
of  religious  instruction  through  a  review  of  history. 
It  describes  a  people  coming  to  themselves,  discovering 


AGE   OF   UNITED   KINGDOM  75 

their  power  when  united  under  a  great  leader,  gUxdly 
obeying  a  leader  who  had  heroic  qualities,  but  discover- 
ing finally  that  prowess  in  war  was  insufficient  to  make 
a  true  ruler  of  men.  Notice  how  skilfully  tl>e  author 
adjusted  his  varied  material  so  as  to  indicate  :  (1)  the 
share  of  God  in  the  shaping  of  this  growtli  toward  a 
better  political  and  social  organization  ;  (2)  the  person- 
alities of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David  ;  (3)  the  remarkable 
portrait  of  Jonathan ;  (4)  the  growth  of  David  into  one 
who  was  the  people's  natural  choice  as  ruler. 

Notice  also  (5)  the  beginnings  of  the  prophetic  order, 
the  nature  of  the  religious  exercises  practised  by 
prophets,  and  of  the  religious  influence  exerted  ;  (6) 
popular  religious  ideas  and  practices  as  indicated  by 
First  Samuel  9i"-^S  lO^.s,  205-6,  26i9. 

§  28.   Period  op  David. 
1.    Sources. 

(1)   Second  Samuel. 

In  connection  with  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un. 
Kgdm.,"  §§  80,  81,  read  Second  Samuel,  or  read  the 
book  as  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.," 
pages  112-164,   in  connection  with  pages  5,  6,  10-14. 

The  analysis  of  this  material  is  also  given  in  : 
Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  H.,  pages  45-49  ;  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  89-95  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 
0.  T.,"  pages  172-184 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
84-93 ;  "  Messages  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages 
139-143  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.,  art.  "  Samuel  I., 
II.";  "Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  art.  "Samuel,  Books"  ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "  Samuel,"  in  "  Intcrnat.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages 
xii-sxix. 


76  HEBREW  HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

In  reading,  note  :  (1)  threefold  division  of  the  book 
marked  by  summaries  in  chs.  8  and  202^"^^,  as  well  as 
by  the  difference  in  the  character  of  the  material  in 
each  part ;  (2)  the  general  plan  of  chs.  1-8  in  com- 
parison with  First  Samuel  8-14,  especially  14  ^^^^^ ;  (3) 
subject  of  chs.  9-20  ;  (4)  epic  quality  and  high  liter- 
ary value  of  this  section  of  the  book  ;  (5)  way  in  which 
the  section  9-20  leads  on  to  First  Kings  1,  2  by  re- 
counting the  failure  of  the  older  sons  to  secure  the 
throne  ;  (6)  prophetic  story  in  11^-1225 ;  (7)  miscella- 
neous character  of  contents  of  chs.  21-24 ;  (8)  relation 
of  eh,  22  to  Ps.  18  ;  (9)  probable  date  of  the  poems 
in  chs.  22  and  23. 

(2)    First  Chronicles  11-29. 

For  a  paraphrase  of  the  account  of  David's  reign 
given  in  Chronicles,  see  McFadyen,  "  Messages  Proph. 
and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  289-294.  For  general 
characteristics  of  the  Chronicler's  history,  see :  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  22-28  ;  McFadyen,  "  Mes- 
sages Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  270-285 ; 
"Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  347-356;  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  107-116  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.," 
pages  516-535;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  art.  "  Chron- 
icles "  ;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I,  art.  "Chronicles";  Bennett, 
"  Chronicles,"  in  "  Expositor's  Bible,"  pages  3-25. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  accounts 
of  David's  reign  :  Kent, "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un.  Kgdm.," 
pages  136-168  ;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  136- 
176  ;  Wade,  "  0.  T.  Hist,"  oh.  ix.;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T. 
Hist,,"  ch.  viii. 


AGE  OF  UNITED  KINGDOM  77 

While  reading,  try  to  gain  a  clear  impression  of: 
(1)  the  diplomacy  which  David  exliibited  after  the 
death  of  Saul,  and  the  successive  steps  by  which  he 
secured  rule  over  united  Israel ;  (2)  the  course  of  the 
struggle  between  the  North  and  South  ;  (3)  relations 
of  David  with  the  Philistines;  (4)  history  and  signifi- 
cance (political  and  religious)  of  securing  Jebus  as  the 
national  capital ;  (5)  the  international  situation  that 
gave  Israel  its  oj^portunity  for  expansion  ;  (6)  extent 
of  David's  kingdom  (see  map,  Plate  II.,  or  Kcntj 
"  Un.  Kgdm.,''  page  148)  ;  (7)  David's  military  organ- 
ization ;  (8)  his  wars  ;  (9)  his  foi-eign  alliances ;  (10) 
development  of  political  organization  of  nation;  (11) 
political  significance  of  David's  marriages  ;  (12)  origin 
and  progress  of  family  tragedy  ;  (13)  indications  that 
North  and  South  were  not  organically  united  ;  (14) 
David's  place  in  history  as  an  organizer  and  statesman. 
For  further  estimates  of  David,  reference  may  be  made 
to  :  Cornill,  "  Hist.  Poop.  Isr.,"  pages  83-85  ;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  L,  art.  "  David  "  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Modern  Crit. 
and  Preaching  0.  T.,"  pages  155-157. 

3.    Religinns  and  Ethical  Value  of  the  History. 

Consider :  (1)  the  religious  advance  of  this  period 
and  its  causes  ;  (2)  the  extraordinary  ethical  sound- 
ness of  the  main  narrative  and  its  keen  int;er{)retation 
of  the  succession  of  troidjles  ;  (3)  the  character  sketches 
of  David's  contemporaries ;  (4)  the  personality  of 
David.     Was  he  more  than  a  man  of  his  times  ? 


T8  HEBREW  HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

§  29.   Period  of  Solomon. 

1.  Sources. 

(1)  First  Kings  1-11. 

In  connection  with  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peep.,  Un. 
Kgclm.,"  §§  83,  84,  read  First  Kings  1-11,  or  read 
these  chaptei-s  as  they  are  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist, 
and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  164-199,  in  connection  with 
pages  14-16. 

The  analysis  of  this  material  is  also  given  in  :  Kittel, 
"  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  49-59 ;  }3ennctt  and  Adeney, 
"  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  95-100 ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.," 
pages  185-193;  McFadyen,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages 
94-106,  "  Messages  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages 
177-185;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  art.  "Kings  I., 
IL";  "Enc.   Bib.,"  IL,  art.  "Kings,  Book." 

In  reading,  note  carefully  :  (1)  indications  of  dif- 
ferent sources  and  the  material  ascribed  to  each ;  (2) 
marks  of  a  later  editor's  hand  ;  (3)  connection  between 
First  Kings  1,  2,  and  Second  Sam.  9-20;  (4)  natural 
division  of  the  section  into  three  parts,  1-2,  3-10,  11 ; 
(5)  grouping  of  3-10  about  6,  7  as  a  centre;  (6) 
editor's  estimate  of  Solomon,  in  ch.  11. 

(2)  Second  Chronicles  1-9. 

For  a  paraphrase  of  the  Chronicler's  account  of  Solo- 
mon's reign,  see  McFadyen,  "  Messages  of  Proph.  and 
Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  294-297. 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Kead  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  accounts 
of  Solomon's  reign:  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Un. 
Kgdm.,"  pages  169-206 ;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  IL, 
pages  177-204;  Wade,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  xi. ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist."  ch.  ix. 


AGE   OF  UNITED   KINGDOM  79 

In    reading,    try    to  gain    a   clear    impression    of: 

(1)  the   steps  by  which  Solomon  secm^ed  the  throne; 

(2)  the  portions  of  David's  domain  wliich  Solomon  lost; 

(3)  steps  talvon  by  Solomon,  at  home  and  abroad,  to 
strengthen  his  kingdom ;  (4)  weakness  and  dangers  in 
his  policy  ;  (5)  real  natnre  of  his  wisdom  ;  (6)  extent 
of  his  building  operations  ;  (7)  indications  of  despot- 
ism in  his  rule;  (8)  situation,  plan,  and  architectural 
appearance  of  tlie  temple ;  (9)  an  estimate  of  the 
actual  character  of  the  glory  of  his  reign.  Was  it  an 
advance  upon  that  of  David  ?  (10)  a  summary  view 
of  the  political,  social,  and  religious  development  of 
Israel  during  the  age  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

3.    Significance  of  the  History. 

Consider  with  care  :  (1)  tlie  character  of  King  Solo- 
mon. Was  there  any  justification,  on  the  one  hand, 
for  tlie  extravagant  popular  estimates  or,  on  the  other, 
for  the  severe  condemnation  of  the  pro})hetic  historians? 
Wherein  and  why  was  he  lacking  in  the  qualities  needed 
by  a  leader  of  that  day  ?  (2)  the  significance  to  Isi'ael 
of  the  building  of  the  temple.  How  far  was  this  sig- 
nificance realized  at  the  outset  ?  (3)  the  Biblical  esti- 
mate of  the  age  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Was  it  a 
period  of  real  advance,  and  in  what  respects  ?  AVas 
tiiere,  in  any  respect,  a  decline  ?  How  did  the  writers 
explain  the  history  ? 

§  30.  Literature  in  the  Age  of  the  United 
Kingdom, 

1.    Historical  Narrative,  Court  and  Temple  Annals. 

The  constructive  work  of  David's  reign  left  Israel  a 
nation  living  under  conditions  not  unfavorable  to  the 


80  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

development  of  literature.  With  this  accords  well  the 
fact  that  in  the  story  of  the  Jounding  of  David's  king- 
dom, given  with  so  little  of  later  addition  in  Second 
Samuel,  and  in  the  earlj'  Judean  David  and  Saul  stories 
of  First  Samuel,  we  have  the  first  examples,  in  Hebrew 
literature,  of  connected  narrative  revealing  the  charac- 
teristics of  a  contemporaneous  record.  Whether  we  are 
to  ascribe  the  actual  writing  of  these  narratives  to  the 
century  of  the  United  Kingdom  or  to  a  slightly  later 
time,  we  cannot  determine  with  certainty.  As  one  goes 
back  from  the  time  of  David  and  Saul  to  the  age  of  the 
Judges,  and  tlien  of  the  Conquest,  and  then  of  the  Pa- 
triarchs, he  finds  clear  indications  that  the  events  lie 
farther  and  farther  back  of  the  written  records. 

Solomon  evidently  caused  state  annals  to  be  kept,  in 
which  significant,  and,  often,  detailed  events  were  re- 
corded. In  these,  or  in  separate  temple  annals,  data  re- 
garding the  construction  and  dedication  of  the  temple 
were,  no  doubt,  preserved.  From  such  sources  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  Solomon  (1  Kgs.  11^^)  was  compiled  at  a 
subsequent  date. 

For  discussion  of  the  narrative  writing  of  the  early 
kingdom,  see :  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages 
3-7,  10-12,  14,  15;  Kautzsch,  "Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  25- 
29  ;  Peters,  "  Early  Heb.  Story,"  pages  3,  4,  8,  9. 

2.    Poetry. 

(1)   David's  Elegies.     Second  Samuel  l^^-^T^  333,34. 

Read  the  elegies,  preferably  from  Kent,  "  Hist,  and 
Biog.  Nars.,"  noting :  (1)  their  picturesque  qualities ; 
(2)  secular  character ;  (3)  form  and  structure  ;  (4)  depth 
of  feeling. 


AGE   OF   UNITED   KINHDOM  81 

(2)  Blessing  of  Jacob.     Genesis  49^'^', 

Read  the  poem,  consulting  for  aid  in  interpretation, 
Driver,  "  Genesis,"  pages  379,  380,  and  for  details,  notes 
on  pages  381-393. 

(3)  Balaam  Oracles.     Numbers  23'-i0'i8  24^  24s-9.i5-i7. 
Read  tlie  oracles,  preferably  from  Kent,  "  Beginnings 

Heb.  Hist.,"  consulting  Gray,  "  Numbers,"  in  "  Internat. 
Grit.  Com.,"  pages  313,  314,  345-348,  350-357,  360- 
367,  368-371. 

(4)  Books  of  Poems. 

Such  collections  of  poems  as  the  Book  of  Jashar 
("  the  righteous  one  ")  and  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of 
Jehovah  were  made  either  during  this  century  or 
shortly  afterward  (see  Josh.  IQi^,  2  Sam.  V^,  Num.  2V^). 
Of  these  books,  we  know  only  what  may  be  inferred 
from  their  titles  and  the  material  assigned  to  them. 
For  brief  discussions,  see  :  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  H., 
IV.,  arts.  "Jashar,  Book  of,"  "Wars  of  the  Lord, 
Book  of";  "Enc.  Bib.,"  H.,  art.  "Jashar,  Book  of"; 
Peters,  "  Early  Heb.  Story,"  pages  5,  6. 

3.    Early  Legal  Writings. 

In  First  Samuel  SO^*''-^^  (David's  decision  concerning 
the  sharing  of  the  spoil)  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the 
way  in  which  statute  law  developed  in  Israel's  history. 
In  the  decalogue  of  Exodus  34^*26  (^j^^^  j;  26)  there  is 
preserved  an  early  code  of  ritual  law,  which,  however, 
could  not  have  assumed  its  present  form  before  Israel 
had  attained  a  settled  agricultural  life ;  at  least  three 
of  the  laws,  the  6tli,  7th,  and  9th,  would  be  inapplicable 
to  nomad  conditions.  For  further  discussion,  sec : 
Kent,  "  Messnges  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.,"  pages  21-24,  "  Laws 
and  Tradit.  Preceds."  (in  preparation),  Intro. 

6 


V 

AGE  OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION"  AND  DESTRUCTION 

(c.  937-58G  B.  c.) 

§  81.   Pre-Assyrian  Period  (c.  937-842  b.  c.) 

1.  Limits  of  the  Period. 

The  age  of  political  division  and  destruction  begins 
with  the  death  of  Solomon  and  the  refusal  of  the  north- 
ern tribes  to  accept  the  rule  of  Rehoboam.  The  first 
period  of  this  age  terminates  with  Jehu's  payment  of 
tribute  to  Shalmaneser  II.  of  Assyria.  From  that  time 
forward  for  two  hundred  years  the  Assyrian  power  was 
the  dominant  factor  in  Palestine.  The  chronological 
chart  at  the  opening  of  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div. 
Kgdm.,"  should  be  carefully  examined  for  the  period 
from  937  to  842,  the  general  political  relations  between 
Judah  and  Israel  and  between  these  kingdoms  and  their 
neighbors  being  noted. 

2.  Sources. 

(1)  Biblical.     First  King's  12  to  Second  Kings  3. 

a.  First  Kings  12-16.  Read  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §§  1-3.  In  connection  with  §  4, 
read  First  Kings  12-16,  or  read  these  chapters  as 
arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  203- 
212,  in  connection  with  pages  7,  16-18. 

The  analysis  of  this  material  is  also  given  in  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  page  100  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 


AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION    AND    DESTRUCTION       83 

O.  T.,"  pages  193,  194 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  art. 
"  Kings  L,  IL,"  §  6. 

b.  First  Kin^s  17  to  Seeond  Kings  3.  In  conneetion 
with  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  5,  read 
First  Kings  17  to  Second  Kings  3,  or  read  these  chap- 
ters in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  212-229, 
234-236,  in  connection  with  ])ages  7,  16-18. 

The  analysis  is  also  given  in  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"Bib.  Int.,"  pages  100,  101;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0. 
T.,"  pages  194-196;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  art. 
"Kings  I.,  II.,"  §  6. 

Note  the  discussion  of  the  historical  value  of  Kings 
in  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  6,  or 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  94-100. 

In  reading  this  portion  of  Kings,  notice  especially : 
(1)  the  change  in  the  structure  of  the  narrative  be- 
ginning at  ch.  12;  (2)  the  compiler's  point  of  view; 
(3)  sources  used  in  coni{)ilation ;  (4)  the  chapters  which 
belong  to  the  Elijah  narratives. 

c.  Second  Chronicles  10-22^.  For  a  paraphrase  of 
these  chapters  of  Chronicles,  see  McFadyen,  "  Messages 
Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  297-304.  For 
general  characteristics  of  Chronicles,  consult  references 
under  IV.,  §  28,1,  (2). 

(2)  Monumental. 

a.  Inscription  of  Sheshonk.  In  connection  with  First 
Kings  14-^-28,  note  inscription  of  Sheshonk  (Shishak) 
on  walls  of  temple  at  Karnak  (near  Thebes).  See  : 
Price, "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  141, 142  ;  Kent,  "  Hist, 
and  Biog.  Nars.,"  page  494.  For  information  as  to 
Sheshonk,  consult :  Breasted,  "  Hist,  of  Egypt,"  pages 
627-531;  Newberry  and  Garstang,  "Hist,  of  Egypt," 


84  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

pages  172,173;  Hastings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  lY.,  page  506  ; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  cols.  4485-4487  ;  McCurdy,  "  Hist. 
Proph.  and  Mons.,"  L,  §  210. 

A  brief  summary  of  Egyptian  history  from  the  point 
where  it  last  touched  Hebrew  history,  about  1200  b.  c, 
to  the  time  of  Sheshonk  may  be  read  in  "  Enc.  Bib.," 
II.,  col.  1242 ;  or  Newberry  and  Garstang,  "  Hist. 
Egypt,"  pages  168-173.  Fuller  accounts  will  be  found 
in  Breasted,  "Hist.  Egyptns."  (in  preparation),  and 
"Hist.  Egypt.,"  pages  505-531. 

b.  Moabite  Stone.  In  connection  with  Second  Kings 
V,  S*-'-^',  read  the  inscription  from  the  Moabite  Stone. 
See  :  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  142-147  ;  Kent, 
"Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  494-496;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  III.,  pages  406-408.  Note :  (1)  points  in 
which  the  inscription  supplements  the  Biblical  narra- 
tive ;  (2)  religious  point  of  view  of  the  Moabite  king ; 
(3)  style  of  the  inscription  in  comparison  with  the 
narrative  of  Kings. 

c.  Inscription  of  Shalmaneser  II.  In  connection 
with  Ahab's  reign,  note  the  inscription  of  Shalmaneser 
II.  given  in  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  150-153 ; 
Kent,  "Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  page  496;  McCurdy, 
"  Hist.  Proph.  and  Mons.,"  1.,  §§  228,  229. 

3.    Chronology. 

Read  at  least  one  of  the  following  discussions  :  Kent, 
"Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages  12-15;  Hast- 
ings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I,  pages  399-403  ;  McCurdy,  "  Hist. 
Proph.  and  Mons.,"  I,  page  409,  Note 6;  Kittel,  "Hist. 
Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  234-240  ;  Wade,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages 
317-321.  Note :  (1)  difficulties  in  the  chronology  of 
Kings  ;   (2)   sources   of   the  chronology ;  (3)  earliest 


AGE   OF  POLITICAL   DIVISION   AND    DESTRUCTION       85 

indications  of  a  recjnlar  system  of  datins:;  amonu:  the 
Hebrews;  (4)  method  of  dating  in  Amos  1^,  of.  Zcch. 
14^ ;  (5)  value  of  Ussher's  chronology,  now  printed  in 
the  King  James  version  of  English  Bible ;  (6)  reasons 
for  reliance  on  Assyrian  chronology ;  (7)  points  of 
absolute  synchronism  in  the  history  of  Judah  and 
Israel ;  (8)  importance  of  842  b.  c.  for  Hebrew  chron- 
ology;  (9)  partial  confirmation  from  Egyptian  history 
of  the  date  for  division  of  kingdom  obtained  by  com- 
paring Assyrian  inscriptions  with  Kings. 

4.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  refer- 
ences :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
16-45;  Kittel,  "Hist.  Hebs.,"  H.,  pages  241-277; 
Wade,  "  O.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  312-347 ;  H.  P.  Smith, 
"  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  X. 

In  reading,  seek  to  secure  a  clear  impression  of: 
(1)  the  immediate  occasion  and  deeper  causes  of  the 
division  ;  (2)  differences  in  the  resources,  organization, 
and  character  of  the  two  kingdoms ;  (3)  ability  and 
significance  of  the  house  of  Omri ;  (4)  periods  of  hos- 
tility and  peace  between  northern  and  southern  Israel ; 
(5)  general  course  of  tiic  relations  of  Israel  and 
Damascus. 

5.  The  Prophet  Elijah. 

During  the  reign  of  Ahab  there  appeared  in  Hebrew 
history  a  great  original  personality  whose  creative 
impress  may  be  noted  in  Israel's  succession  of  prophets 
through  centuries  following.  For  discussions  of  Elijah, 
read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references:  Kent, 
"Hist.  Ilcb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages  46-54  ;  Hastings, 
"Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  687-692;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  H.,  cols. 


86  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

1270-1274;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  II.,  Lecture 
30 ;  Fowler,  "  Proplis.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers," 
pages  13,  14. 

6.  Religious  Progress  of  the  Period. 

Consider  carefully  (1)  to  what  degree  the  estimates 
of  the  Deuteronomic  editor  of  Kings  concerning  these 
kings  were  justified.  That  the  condemnation  was  in 
part  formal  is  indicated  by  First  Kings  IG^^'^o^  Yl^di  it 
only  a  technical  basis  ?  (2)  the  introduction,  fostering, 
and  championship  of  Baalism,  and  its  check  by  Elijah  ; 
(3)  the  prophetic  guilds,  their  influence  and  numbers, 
the  false  prophets,  the  genuine  ones,  examples  of  each 
kind  ;  (4)  the  simplicity  of  Elijah's  creed. 

7.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

We  have  already  seen  that  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
criminate accurately  between  the  century  under  con- 
sideration and  the  preceding  age,  in  dating  the  literary 
materials  that  have  been  preserved.  For  discussion  of 
the  literature  that  arose  in  these  two  centuries,  see  §  30, 
1  and  3.  No  poetry  can  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to 
the  period  between  Solomon  and  Jehu,  though  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Book  of  Jashar  and  of  the  Wars  of 
Jehovah  may  belong  to  this  century  (see  §  30,  2,  (4)). 
No  book  of  prose  or  poetry  now  extant  had  been  com- 
piled when  the  house  of  Omri  fell,  about  842  b.  c. 

§  32.  Assyrian  Period  of  Israel's  History.  (842- 
722/1  B.  c.) 

1.   Introductory :  Assyro-Bahylonian  History  from  the 
Twelfth  Century  to  842  b.  c. 

With  the  close  of  §  8  we  left  the  Assyro-Babylonian 
history  at  the  end  of  the  Kassitc  dynasty,  a  time  not 


AGE  OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION    AND    DESTRUCTION       87 

far  from  that  of  the  Hebrew  entrance  into  Palestine. 
At  that  date  the  more  ancient  centre  of  government  in 
Babylonia  had  for  several  centuries  been  struggling 
with  the  lusty  young  power  of  Assyria.  Tlie  contest 
had  been  carried  on  with  varying  success,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  Kassite  power  in  Babylonia  neither  king- 
dom had  much  advantage  in  the  struggle.  The  three 
centuries  intervening  between  that  point  and  the  age 
when  Assyria  became  the  most  important  factor  in 
Israel's  political  life  should  be  rapidly  reviewed. 
See:  " Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  447-449,  366-370 ;  Goodspeed, 
"  Hist.  Babs.  and  Assyrs.,"  pages  155-215 ;  Kogers, 
"  Hist.  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  I.,  pages  425-429,"  H.,  pages 
21-82,  noting  especially,  in  the  Babylonian  history  : 
(1)  the  reign  of  Nebuchadrezzar  I.,  including  the  ex- 
tent of  his  sway  ;  (2)  gap  of  nearly  one  hundred  years 
in  the  history,  practically  contemporary  with  the  cen- 
tury of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  and  in  the  Assyrian  his- 
tory :  (1)  the  reign  of  Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  including  his 
conquests  and  humbling  of  Babylon ;  (2)  gap  of  one 
hundred  years  in  the  history,  almost  contemporary  with 
the  century  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  (3)  completeness 
of  Assyrian  records  for  three  hundred  years,  beginning 
at  about  930  b.  c.  ;  (4)  successful  reigns  of  Ashurna- 
sirpal  and  Shalmaneser  II.  (for  territory  see  maj).^ 
Plate  III.) ;  (5)  Assyria's  first  recorded  contact  with 
Israel  in  854  b.  c.  (see  inscription  of  Shalmaneser  II., 
§  31,  2,  (2),  c). 

2.    Sources. 

(1)   Biblical.     Second  Kings  4-17,  Amos,  Hosea. 
a.    Second  Kings  4-17.     In  connection  with   Kent, 
"Hist.   Ileb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"   §   55,  read  Second 


88  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Kings  4-17,  omitting  passages  which  concern  Judah 
exckisively  (11,  12,  14^^^,  15^'')  or  read  these  chapters 
as  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages 
229-253,  in  connection  with  pages  16,  17,  18-20.  The 
analysis  of  the  material  is  also  presented  in  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  101,  102  ;  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  195-197  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II., 
art.  "  Kings,  I,  II.,"  §  6. 

b.  Amos.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  56  (earlier  part),  read  rapidly 
Amos,  noting  :  (1)  allusions  which  indicate  that  Amos 
prophesied  in  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II.;  (2)  conditions 
of  society  which  the  prophet  reveals.  Read  over  the 
account  of  Jeroboam's  reign,  Second  Kings  14  23-2^. 

c.  Hosca.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,  §  56  (latter  part),  read  rapidly 
Hosea,  noting  the  allusions  indicating  that  chapters 
1-3  belong  to  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  and  that  4-14 
belong,  at  least  in  the  main,  to  the  period  of  anarchy 
following  the  death  of  this  prosperous  monarch.  Read 
over  the  account  of  this  time  of  confusion.  Second 
Kings  15^^2'\  Note  also  the  conditions  of  society  re- 
vealed in  Hosea's  sermons. 

(2)  Monumental. 

Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  57. 

a.  In  connection  with  the  reign  of  Jehu  (2  Kings 
9^'"10^i),note  the  inscriptions  of  Shalmaneser  II.  on  the 
pavement  slab  of  Calah  and  the  black  obelisk ;  Price, 
"  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  154-156  ;  Kent,  "  Hist,  and 
Biog.  Nars.,"  page  497. 

b.  As,  perhaps,  throwing  some  light  on  Second 
Kings  13^,  note  inscription  of  Ramman-nirari  III., 
Price,  "Mons.  and  0.  T./'  pages  157,  158. 


AGE   OF   rOLITICAL   DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION       89 

c.  With  Second  Kings  15'^  compare  annals  of  Tiglath 
Pileser  III.,  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  §  148  ;  McCurdy, 
"Hist.  Proph.  and  Mons.,"  I.,  §  310. 

d.  In  connection  with  Second  Kings  IS^^"^^,  16'"^, 
note  Tiglath  Pileser's  account  of  h.is  western  campaign 
of  734  B.  c,  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  §§  151-15i ; 
Kent,  "  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  page  498. 

e.  With  Second  Kings  IT*^  compare  the  records  of 
Sargon,  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  §  159 ;  Kent,  "  Hist. 
and  Biog.   Nars.,"  pages  498,  499. 

No  records  of  Shalmaneser  I\^.,  who  began  the  siege 
of  Samaria,  have  as  yet  beeu  discovered. 

3.  Clironology. 

Study  at  least  one  of  the  following  discussions : 
Kent,"  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  58  ;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  399-403  ;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.," 
II.,  pages  234-240.  In  reading,  note  carefully :  (1) 
limits  of  the  period  ;  (2)  correction  of  the  chronology 
of  Kings  ;  (3)  important  dates  of  the  period  fixed  l)y 
contemporary  inscriptions.  Study  chart,  frontispiece, 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm." 

4.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  refer- 
ences :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
Gl-77,  98-108;  Kittel,  "Hist.  Hebs.,"  !!.,§§  61,  63, 
67-69;  Wade,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  347-364;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  chs.  xi.,  xii. 

While  reading,  note  :  (1)  the  relation  of  prophets  to 
Jehu's  revolution  ;  (2)  The  fate  of  the  line  of  Omri ; 
(3)  effect  for  the  revolution  on  Judah ;  (4)  disastrous 
effects  for  Israel ;  (5)  favorable  results  for  Israel. 


90  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

5.  Religious  Progress  of  the  Period. 

Consider  with  discrimination  :  (1)  the  character  and 
worlc  of  Elisha :  wherein  he  differed  from  his  great 
predecessor,  the  meaning  of  Second  Kings  13^*,  the 
extent  to  which  he  estabhshed  Elijah's  ideals,  the  new 
type  of  prophetic  activity  which  he  illustrated  ;  (2)  the 
religious  usages  of  the  day,  as  described  in  the  narra- 
tives ;  (3)  its  religious  limitations,  as  evidenced  in  such 
passages  as  Second  Kings  5^^^^^,  3^^ ;  (4)  the  overthrow 
of  Baalism  and  unquestioned  establishment  of  national 
loyalty  to  Jehovah. 

6.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Ephraimite  Prophetic  History  (E). 

We  have  now  reached  the  period  in  which  the  early 
Ephraimite  prophetic  narratives  had  been  completed. 
In  sections  II.  and  III.  we  have  already  become  familiar 
with  the  general  characteristics  of  this  document,  which^ 
at  a  still  later  period,  having  been  enlarged  by  later 
narratives,  was  combined  with  the  Judean  Prophetic 
History  and,  centuries  later  still, came  to  form  a  strand 
of  the  completed  Hexateuch. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Kent. 
"Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  37-40;  Driver,  "Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  116-126;  McFadyen,  "Messages 
Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  21-26  ;  Carpenter 
and  Battersby,  "  Hex.,"  I.,  ch.  xii. ;  Kittel,  "  Hist. 
Hebs.,"  I.,  §  8,  noting:  (1)  probable  date  of  composi- 
tion ;  (2)  features  that  indicate  a  northern  origin  ;  (3) 
dcA^elopment  of  ethical  and  theological  ideas  character- 
istic of  this  document. 


AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION       91 

(2)  Close  of  the  Creative  Age  of  Poetic  Composition 
and  Prophetic  Narration. 

The  composition  of  the  early  Ephraimitc  Prophetic 
narratives  marks  the  close  of  the  first  great  productive 
age  in  the  history  of  Hebrew  literature.  The  earlier 
prophetic  histories  of  north  and  south  had  now  attained 
much  of  the  form  in  which  they  were  finally  combined. 
The  primitive  law  codes  of  Exodus  were  formulated,  the 
early  poems  of  the  nation  were  collected  into  antholo- 
gies, of  which  the  names  of  two  have  been  preserved. 
The  three  hundred  years  from  Samuel  to  750  b.  c. 
have  appropriately  been  styled  the  "creative  age  of 
poetic  composition  and  prophetic  narration,"  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  preceding  "  primitive  age  of  song  and 
story  "  when  little  had  been  committed  to  writing  by 
the  people  of  Israel. 

(3)  Beginning  of  the  Classical  Age  of  Prophetic, 
Priestly,  and  Wisdom  Literature. 

All  Hebrew  writings  before  about  750  b.  c.  ai'C  known 
only  through  their  embodiment  in  later  works.  The 
epoch-making  writings  of  Amos  and  Hosca  inaugurated 
a  new  literary  age.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  over- 
estimate the  importance  of  these  two  little  books  as 
landmarks  in  any  historical  survey  of  the  literature 
and  religion  of  ancient  Israel,  Standing  on  the  com- 
paratively firm  ground  wliich  they  give,  one  looks  back 
over  the  invaluable,  though  rather  fragmentary,  remains 
of  Israel's  earlier  literary  activity  and  is  able  to  form 
some  general  conception  of  the  creative  centuries  that 
preceded  the  com])Osition  of  the  completed  books  of  our 
Old  Testament. 


92  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

(4)    Book  of  Amos. 

a.  Structure.  (1)  Read  the  book  in  the  following 
sections:  chs.  1-2,  3-6,  7-9;  (2)  find  a  title  for  each 
section  ;  (3)  note  whether  the  book  seems  an  orderly 
and  unitary  composition  or  a  mere  collection  of  discon- 
nected fragments. 

b.  Style.  Reread,  noting  :  (1)  the  figures  and  illus- 
trations used  ;  (2)  examples  of  parallelism,  balanced 
sentences,  climax. 

c.  Thought.  Recalling  the  political  and  social  con- 
ditions to  which  Amos  addressed  liimsclf  (2,  (1),  b), 
formulate  in  writing  the  principal  teachings  of  this 
prophet  upon:  (1)  the  character  of  Jehovah;  (2)  the 
standards  of  business  and  social  procedure  demanded 
by  him ;  (3)  his  attitude  to  Israel  and  other  nations  ; 
(4)  the  danger  impending  over  Israel ;  (5)  the  char- 
acteristics of  real  religion. 

d.  Author.  Note  the  facts  about  Amos's  life  that 
may  be  gathered  from  7^*^^^S  and  consider  the  mental 
and  moral  characteristics  of  this  preacher  of  ancient 
Israel.  Was  his  appeal  such  as  might  be  expected 
from  an  observant,  thoughtful  farmer  ? 

e.  Reference  Literature:  The  student  should  make 
the  above  study  of  Amos  directly  from  the  book  itself. 
If,  however,  it  is  desired  to  read  on  any  special  points, 
the  following  books  are  suggested  for  reference : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int. "  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 
0.  T.";  McFadycn,  "Int.  0.  T. "  ;  Hastings,  "Diet. 
Bib.,"  art.  "Amos";  "Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Amos"; 
Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Earlier  Prophs.  " ;  G. 
A.  Smith,  "Bk.  of  Twelve,"  in  "Expositor's  Bible"; 
Harper,    "  Amos    and    Hosea,"    in    "  Internat.     Grit. 


AGE   OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION       93 

Com." ;  Kent,  "  Hist.  EEcb.  Pcop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
78-97  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preacliers." 

(5)    Book  of  Hosea. 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  book  of  Hosea  in  the  follow- 
ing sections  :  chapters  1-3,  4-14,  and  note  the  general 
theme  and  character  of  each  section. 

h.  Style.  Reread,  comparing  Hosea  with  Amos  in 
orderliness  and  connection  of  parts  and,  at  the  same 
time,  noting  the  effective  figures  and  illustrations  used. 

c.  Thought,  (1)  Note  Hosea's  conception  of  Israel's 
attitude  toward  God,  marking  especially  the  various 
classes  of  the  people  who  are  condemned  by  the  prophet, 
and  his  despair  of  popular  reform.  (2)  Formulate  the 
thought  of  Hosea  concerning  God's  relation  to  Israel, 
especially  as  it  is  presented  in  chapters  1-3  and  11. 
By  what  terms  is  Israel  named  ?  (3)  Note  the  supreme 
demand  of  God  as  given  by  this  prophet.  (4)  Compare 
the  thought  of  Amos  with  that  of  Hosea  concerning 
God's  character,  Israel's  failure  to  respond  to  his  de- 
mands, the  assurance  of  a  speedy  judgment,  the  nature 
of  it,  the  real  purpose  of  God. 

d.  Author.  It  seems  clear  from  this  prophet's  in- 
terest and  allusions  that  his  message  was,  like  that  of 
Amos,  addressed  to  northern  Israel ;  but,  unlike  Amos, 
Ilosea  was  himself  evidently  a  native  of  the  north  (see 
for  example,  7^  "  our  king  "  or  4^'^^  "  my  people  ").  If 
chapters  1-3  reflect  the  actual  experience  through 
■which  Ilosea  was  educated  to  an  apprehension  of  divine 
love,  we  have  considerable  knowledge  concerning  the 
prophet's  private  lil'e.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are 
rigiit  who  regard  these  chapters  ns  a  ])arablc,  we  have 
very  little  knowledge  (see  for  discussion  of  this  mooted 


94  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

question,  Harper,  "  Amos  and  Hos.,"  in  "  Internat,  Grit. 
Com.,"  pages  cxlii-cxlv,  208-210 ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk. 
of  Twelve,"  in  "  Expositor's  Bible,"  I.,  pages  236-240  ; 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  H.,  pages  421,  422;  "Enc. 
Bib.,"  n.,  cols.  2122,  2123).  From  Hosea's  writings 
themselves,  try  to  form  a  conception  of  the  prophet's 
personal  traits. 

e.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  fonnd 
helpful  for  further  study  of  Hosea :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T." ; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T."  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art. 
"Hosea";  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Hosea";  Sanders  and 
Kent,  "  Messages  Earlier  Prophs."  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk. 
of  Twelve,"  in  "  Expositor's  Bible  "  ;  Harper,  "  Amos 
and  Hos.,"  in  "Internat.  Grit.  Gom. ;  "  Kent,  "Hist. 
Hob.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages  78-97  ;  Fowler, 
"  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

(6)    Deuteronomy  33. 

The  "  Blessing  of  Moses,"  Dcut.  33,  is  generally  as- 
signed to  the  Assyrian  period  of  Israel's  history,  but 
whether  it  should  be  placed  before  or  after  the  proph- 
ecy of  Amos  is  not  clear.  Its  buoyant  tone  and  other 
indications  of  its  political  background  suggest  the  later 
years  of  Jeroboam  II.  as  the  probable  time  of  its 
composition. 

Read  the  poem,  noting  :  (1)  the  characterization  of 
each  tribe  (cf.  "  Blessing  of  Moses,"  Gen.  49)  ;  (2)  the 
prominence  of  the  Joseph  tribes ;  (3)  separation  of 
Judah  and  comparative  indifference  of  the  poet  toward 
her ;  (4)  honor  and  respect  accorded  Levi ;  (5)  neglect 
of  Simeon.  For  discussion  of  the  poem,  see :  Driver, 
"  Deuteronomy,"    in   "  Internat.    Crit.    Com.,"    pages 


AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION  AND   DESTRUCTION       95 

385-417,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  97,  98  ;  Kaiitzsch, 
"  Lit.  0.  T.,"'  pages  40,  41 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.," 
page  50. 

(7)    Our  Literary  Heritage  from  Nortliern  Israel. 

Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §§  107, 
108,  noting:  (1)  reason  why  we  have  no  more  litera- 
ture preserved  from  northern  Israel ;  (2)  literature 
which  bears  marks  of  northern  origin ;  (3)  primacy 
of  the  north,  but  note  that  Amos  was  himself  a  Judean. 
(In  connection  with  §  107,  it  should  be  noticed  that 
Kent  now  dates  the  Song  of  Songs  many  centuries 
after  the  fall  of  northern  Israel,  in  accordance  with 
the  advancement  of  knowledge  concerning  that  puz- 
zling little  book  which  has  come  since  his  history  was 
written.) 

§  33.  Assyrian  Period  of  Judah's  History  (842- 
639). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)  Biblical.  Second  Kings  11-21,  Isaiah  1-39, 
Micah. 

a.  Second  Kings  11-21,  Isaiah  36-39.  In  connec- 
tion with  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  109, 
read  Second  Kgs.  11,  12,  I41-22,  151-7,32  38^  iGi-20^  18-21, 
Isa.  36-39,  or  read  these  passages  as  arranged  in  Kent, 
"  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  274-305,  together  with 
pages  6,  7,  20.  The  analysis  of  the  material  is  also 
given  in  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  101, 
102,  184,  185;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  196, 
197,  226,  227;  Hastings,"  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  art.  "Kings, 
I.,  II.,"  §  6,  art.  "Isaiah,"  §  viii. 


96  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

b.  Isaiah  1-35.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist, 
Hcb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  110,  read  the  portions  of 
Isaiah  1-35  there  enumerated,  in  their  chronological 
order  (6,  2^-41,  51^25^  98.1 94,  520-30^  71.97^  171-11^  1^  28i-6, 
20,  1429-32,  28'-2924,  30-32,  2215-25,  lO^-lls,  1424-27, 
1712-14,  18,  221-1*),  QY  read  these  passages  as  arranged 
in  Kent,  "  Prophetic  Serms.,  Epists.  and  Apocalypses  " 
(in  preparation).  While  reading,  note  the  way  they  fit 
into  their  historical  connection  and  throw  light  upon 
the  national  history. 

For  further  discussion  of  the  historical  connection  of 
these  chapters,  reference  may  be  made  to :  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  172-184  ;  Driver,  "Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  206-227  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.," 
pages  107-127. 

c.  Micah.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  111,  read  Micah,  or  read  the  book 
as  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Prophet.  Serms.,  Epists.  and 
Apocs."  (in  preparation).  While  reading,  note  :  (1)  the 
sections  into  which  the  book  naturally  falls ;  (2)  any 
indications  of  date  of  each  section  ( with  312  cf.  Jer. 
261*^)  ;  (3)  social  conditions  in  Judah  as  seen  by  this 
prophet. 

(2)    Monumental. 

a.  General  Statement.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  112. 

b.  Sargon's  Annals.  In  connection  with  Isaiah  20i, 
read  from  Sargon's  annals :  Price,  "  Mons.  and  0.  T.," 
§§  163,  164;  McCurdy,  "Hist.,  Proph.  and  Mons./' 
pages  417-419. 

c.  Sennacherib's  Inscriptions.  In  connection  with 
Isa.  lO^'^-lli,  1524  27,  1712  14^  18,  221-14,  36^  37^  2  Kgs. 


AGE  OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION   AND  DESTRUCTION       97 

18^^-19,  see  Sennacherib's  records  ;  Price,  "  Mons.  and 
0.  T.,"  pages  181-193  ;  Kent,  "Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.," 
pages  499-502  ;  McCurdy,  '•  Hist.,  Propii.  and  Mons.," 
§§  675,  676. 

d.  Esarhaddon's  and  Asliurbanipal's  Lists.  In  con- 
nection with  Manasseh's  reign  (2  Kings  21^"^^),  see 
Esarhaddon's  list  of  western  subjects.  Price,  "  Mons. 
and  0.  T.,"  §  185,  and  Ashurbanipal's  list,  Price,  "  Mons. 
and  0.  T.,"  §  191. 

2.  Clironology. 

Study  carefully  one  of  the  following:  Kent,  "Hist. 
Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §§  113-115  ;  Kittel,  "  Hist. 
Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  238-210  ;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I., 
pages  899-403.  On  the  per)>lexing  question  of  the 
date  of  Hezekiah's  accession,  Kittel  inclines  to  715  b.  c, 
apparently  because  of  agreement  with  chapter  18,  but 
feels  that  we  cannot  come  to  a  positive  decision  on 
the  point  (Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II.,  pages  238,  239). 
McCurdy  (Hist,  Proph.  and  Mons.,"  II.,  pages  248- 
250)  accepts  sixteen  years  for  the  reign  of  Ahaz, 
and  readies  720  or  719  as  the  date  of  Hezekiah's 
accession,  finding  this  in  accord  with  Merodach  Bala- 
dan's  mission  at  the  opening  of  Sennacherib's  reign. 
H.  P.  Smith  ("  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  238,  239)  seems  to 
agree  substantially  witli  McCurdy,  for  he  speaks  of 
Ahaz  as  reigning  in  720  and  adds  that  Hczekiah  came 
to  the  throne  about  this  time. 

3.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  refer- 
ences: Kent,  "Hist,  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
120-133, 141-150, 159-1G4  ;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  II., 

7 


98  HEBREW  HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

§§  62,  67,  68,  70-72;  Wade,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  347- 
375;  H.  P.  Smith,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  232-259. 
"While  reading,  note:  (1)  the  priestly  revolution  and 
downfall  of  the  daughter  of  Ahab;  (2)  reforms  under 
influence  of  Jehoiada  ;  (3)  relations  of  Judali  with 
Syria,  Israel,  and  Assyria  from  Joash  to  Jotham;  (4) 
tlie  marked  prosperity  and.  peaceful ness  of  the  long- 
reign  of  Uzziah ;  (5)  crisis  of  734  b.  c,  its  causes  and 
consequences;  (6)  relations  of  Assyria  and  Judah  in 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  terminating  in  the  great  deliver- 
ance of  Jerusalem ;  (7)  causes  and  general  character 
of  religious  reaction  in  Manasseh's  reign ;  (8)  Man- 
asseh's  relations  with  Assyria ;  (9)  secret  activity  of 
prophets  during  his  reign. 

4.  Religious  Sicpiificance  of  tlie  History. 

Notice  :  (1)  indications  of  the  rapidly  growing  domi- 
nance of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  as  a  religious  centre ; 

(2)  the  growing  independence  of  the  priesthood.  See 
Second  Chronicles  261^"^*^,  but  compare  the  freedom  with 
which  each  sovereign  still  acted  (2  Kings  16^*^"^^,  21*''^)  ; 

(3)  the  independence  of  the  prophets  as  shown  in  their 
attitude  toward  kings  and  priests  alike ;  (4)  the  des- 
perate struggle  by  the  propliets  to  promote  a  sincere 
and  lofty  popular  loyalty  to  Jehovah  ;  (5)  the  reasons 
for  the  quick  reaction  in  the  days  of  jManasseh. 

5.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Judean  Prophetic  History  (J). 

The  early  Judean  prophetic  nai-ratives  are  clearly 
somewhat  earlier  than  the  Ephraimite  narratives, 
already  discussed  (§  32,  5)  in  connection  with  the 
Assyrian  period  of  northern  Israel.     Both  these  docu- 


AGE  OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION  AND  DESTRUCTION       99 

ments  have  been  examined  as  historical  sources  in 
Sections  II.  and  III.  We  must  now  view  the  Judean 
narrative  as  a  literarj-  product  of  the  people  and  period 
in  which  it  was  shaped. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references :  Kent, 
"Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.."  pages  31-37;  Driver,  "Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  116-126;  McFadycn,  "Messages 
Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  21-26;  Carpenter 
and  Battersby,  "  Hex."  I.,  ch.  xi.  ;  Kittel,  "  Hist. 
Hebs.,"  I.,  §  8,  noting  :  (1)  probable  date  of  composition  ; 
(2)  features  that  indicate  a  Judean  origin  ;  (3)  the  great 
idea  which  it  seeks  to  illustrate  ;  (4)  the  ethical  and 
tlieological  ideas  characteristic  of  this  document. 

This  most  picturesque  and  significant  collection  of 
the  early  traditions  of  Israel  belongs,  it  should  be 
remembered,  within  the  "  creative  age  of  poetic  compo- 
sition and  prophetic  narration,"  whereas  the  books  of 
Isaiah  and  ^Nlicah  fall  within  the  early  years  of  the 
"  classical  age  "  inaugurated  by  Amos  and  Hosea. 

(2)  Isaiah  1-39. 

a.  Structure.  This  liook  divides  itself  broadlv  into 
two  parts  :  (1)  a  collection  of  prophecies,  1-35  ;  (2)  an 
historical  appendix  concerning  certain  public  events  in 
which  Isaiah  appears  prominently,  36-39.  The  second 
section  is  almost  identical  with  Second  Kings  18i2~20^^. 
It  is  possible  to  distinguish  some  smaller  groups  of 
prophecies  within  the  lai'ge  group,  and  cliai)tcr  1  may 
easily  have  been  placed  first  as  forming  a  fitting  intro- 
duction to  Isaiali's  message,  but  no  general  principle 
of  orderly  arrangement  is  discoverable  throughout  the 
thirty-five  chapters.  There  are,  besides,  in  this  sec- 
tion intermingled  witli  the  words  of  Isaiah  the  son  of 


100  HEBREVv^  HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Amoz,  a  number  of  prophecies  which  bear  clear  in- 
ternal evidence  of  other  authorship  and  date.  The 
principal  of  these  are  IV^-U^^,  2V-^^,  24-27,  34,  35. 
On  the  whole  it  seems  higiily  probable  that  we  have 
in  Isaiah  1-39  a  compilation  made  by  the  prophet's 
followers,  in  which  some  writings  by  later  prophets 
were  at  one  time  or  another  incorporated,  and  to  which 
chapters  36-39  were  added  as  an  appropriate  conclu- 
sion. At  a  later  point  in  our  study  it  will  \ye  seen  that 
the  wonderful  groups  of  prophecies  found  in  Isaiah 
40-66  were  eventually  appended  to  the  earlier  book 
completed  at  chapter  39. 

b.  Style.  Read  over  the  following  passages  of 
Isaiah  1-35,  noting  in  writing :  (1)  the  variety  of  liter- 
ary forms  represented,  e.  g.  song,  narrative,  address ; 
(2)  the  wealtli  of  figurative  language  employed  —  1, 
2-5,  6,  7-9",  98-10*,  I71-",  28  (probably  belonging  to 
earlier  years  of  ministry)  ;  lO^-ll^-  1424-27,  28  32/1712-14, 
18,  19,  20,  2111-17,  221-14'  15-25,  23,  29-32,  33  (probably 
belonging  to  later  years  of  ministry).  Note  also  ex- 
amples of  compact  and  forcible  utterances  combined 
with  splendidly  rounded  periods,  and  of  the  effective 
use  of  antithesis. 

c.  Thought.  Compare  carefully  the  thought  of 
Isaiah  Avith  that  of  Amos  and  Hosea  upon :  (1)  the 
nature  of  Jehovah,  noting  especially  in  chapter  6  and 
elsewhere  the  great  attribute  of  God  which  Isaiah  is 
the  first  to  emphasize,  and  its  meaning  to  him  and  to 
his  contemporaries  ;  (2)  social  and  religious  conditions 
in  Judah  ;  (3)  the  certainty  that  such  conditions  would 
force  God  to  act  in  punishment. 

Note    further:    (1)    the    prophet's    attitude    toward 


AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION     101 

foreign  alliances,  20^"^'  dO^~''>  ^^'^'^  31^"^;  cf.  interview 
with  Ahaz  and  the  principle  of  action  then  formu- 
lated, 7;  (2)  faith  in  the  inviolability  of  Zion,  102^-34, 
1424-27,32^  291-8,  314'5;  (3)  pictures  of  an  ideal  prince 
and  a  future  of  peace  ll^'^,  32i-«,  ^^  ^S;  (4)  the  re- 
demptive purpose  of  God  and  its  result  in  a  righteous 
"  remnant,"  42"S  6^3^  T^,  17^^^  28^ ;  (5)  catholicity  of 
hope,  1923-251 

d.  Author.  Note  :  (1)  the  length  of  Isaiah's  ministry 
as  indicated  by  the  interval  between  the  inaugural 
vision  (chapter  6)  and  the  prophecies  associated  with  the 
year  701  ;  (2)  indications  as  to  the  prophet's  family,  73, 
8^-"^ ;  (3)  stages  of  the  prophet's  inner  experience  as 
revealed  in  chapter  6 ;  (4)  his  advantageous  relations 
with  the  rulers  of  Judah,  73  9,  371-*,  etc. ;  (5)  his  re- 
sources as  a  teacher  indicated  by  wealth  of  figurative 
language  and  variety  of  literary  form  at  command,  and 
also  in  such  passages  as  20, 1^*^-^",  i^,  5^. 

e.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  in  further  study  of  Isaiah  :  Bennett  and  Adency, 
"Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.";  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T."  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Isaiah,"  in  "  Expositor's 
Bible  ; "  Hastings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  art. "  Isaiah ; "  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  art.  "  Isaiah,  Bk." ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Mes- 
sages Earlier  Prophs."  ;  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div. 
Kgdm.,"  pages  151-158, 134-140  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as 
Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

(3)  Book  of  Micah. 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  book  in  the  following  sec- 
tions and  give  a  title  to  each  section :  1-3,  4-5,  6-7. 

^  The  last  three  jnjrc^iips  of  nifercinfs  iire  treated  as  iioii-Isaianic  by 
some.  See  Cheyue,  "  Isuiali,"  in  "  Sac.  Jiks.  uf  ().  ami  N.  Tests.,"  in 
loco. 


102  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

b.  Style.  Reread  the  book,  noting  examples  of : 
(1)  terse  vigor;  (2)  beautiful  visions  and  dramatic  dia- 
logue. The  remarkable  series  of  paranoraasia  in  l^'^*'^-  is 
not  obvious  in  the  English,  but  an  attempt  to  represent 
it  may  be  found  in  Farrar,  "  Minor  Prophs.,"  page  130  ; 
Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Earlier  Prophs.,"  pages 
117,118. 

c.  Thought.  (1)  In  chapters  1-3,  note  the  emphasis 
on  certain  social  evils  and  their  explanation.  Compare 
with  Amos  and  Hosea.  (2)  In  chapters  4,  5,  note  the 
characteristics  of  the  ideal  future,  especially  Israel's 
future  work  and  her  character.  (3)  In  G^-T*",  note  esti- 
mate of  ritual  in  comparison  with  a  right  heart  and 
moral  conduct,  also  the  prophet's  attitude  toward  exist- 
ing moral  conditions. 

d.  Author.  Note:  (1)  the  date  of  Micah's  ministry 
as  compared  with  that  of  Isaiah  ((2),d)  ;  (2)  probable 
home  of  the  prophet,  1^'^* ;  cf.  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"Bib.  Int.,"  page  247,  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  page 
326  ;  (3)  the  prophet's  public  influence  as  remembered 
in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  ( Jer.  26^'^). 

e.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  in  further  study  of  Micah  :  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T. " ;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  III.  page  359,  art.  "  Micah,"  §  3 ;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  art.  "  Micah "  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages 
Earlier  Prophs.  "  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  in 
"Expositor's  Bible";  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Poop.,  Div. 
Kgdm.,"  pages  134-140 ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  States- 
men and  Preachers." 


AGE   OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION   AND   DESTRUCTION    103 

(4)  Legal  Literature. 

a.  Early  Laws  in  Exodus  13.  Read  Ex.  13,  ^.lo-is  and 
note  the  relation  of  these  laws  to  the  third  and  fourth 
commandments  af  the  decalogue  in  Ex.  Sl^^^^e^ 

b.  Laws  of  Exodus  202^^23^^.  Read  this  group  of 
laws,  noting:  (1)  incorporation  of  laws  from  Ex.  S4^^~ 
'^^^ ;  (2)  subjects  dealt  with  in  the  laws ;  (3)  conditions 
of  society  presupposed. 

c.  Prophetic  Decalogue  of  Exodus  201"^".  Read  this 
group  of  laws,  comparing  in  detail  with  Deut.  5^'^^ 
Note:  (1)  nature  of  the  duties  here  enjoined  in  com- 
parison with  the  earlier  code  of  Ex.  31 ;  (2)  nature  of 
the  duties  in  comparison  with  those  emphasized  by 
Amos,  Hosea,  and  Isaiah  ;  (3)  attitude  of  Hosea  in 
comparison  with  second  commandment ;  (1)  conditions 
of  civilization  implied  in  this  code. 

For  discussion  of  the  nature  and  growth  of  these 
codes,  see  :  Kent,  "  Laws  and  Tradit,  Frees.,"  Intro- 
duction ill.,  "  Messages  Isrs'.  Lawgivers,"  pages  24-27. 
For  analysis  of  the  laws  according  to  subject,  see : 
Kent,  "  Laws  and  Tradit.  Frees.,"'  §§  1-25,  36,  45, 
46,  49,  53,  57,  59,  60,  62,  65,  66-68,  70,  74,  80,  82-90, 
93,  94,  104,  106,  107,  111,  117,  119,  124,  125,  128, 
131,  148,  174,  176,  187-189,  192,  197,  198,  210-215. 
In  the  above  references  a  few  primitive  laws  not 
referred  to  under  a,  b,  c  are  included. 

d.  Deuteronomy  5-26,  28.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  codes  of  Deutcronomv  were  formulated  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  Assyrian  period  of  Judah's  history, 
but  their  discussion  is  deferred  till  the  time  when  the 
book  was  published,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  next 
period. 


104  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

§  34.   Babylonian  Period  op  Jddah's  History. 

1.  Sources. 

(1)  Biblical.  Second  Kings  22-25,  Deuteronomy, 
Zephaniah,   Nalium,  Habakkuk,  Jeremiah. 

a.  Second  Kings  22-25.  In  connection  with  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  170,  read  Second 
Kgs.  22-25,  or  read  this  section  together  with  certain 
chapters  of  Jeremiah  as  arranged  in  Kent,  "  Hist,  and 
Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  306-335.  The  structure  of  the 
section  from  Kings  is  also  presented  in  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  page  103 ;  Driver, "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.," 
page  198 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.  page  870  col.  a. 

b.  Deuteronomy.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb.  Peop., 
Div.  Kgdm."  §§  171,  168,  169. 

c.  Jeremiah.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §§  173,  174,  read  the  passages  of 
Jeremiah  there  named,  noting  how  they  throw  light 
upon  the  period  of  history. 

d.  Ezekiel  1-24,  (25-32).  Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,"  §  175. 

(2)  Monumental. 

Read  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,"  §  176;  Price, 
"  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  §  204. 

2.  Creneral  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  refer- 
ences:  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  pages 
172-204;  Kittel,  "  Hist.  Hebs.,"  pages  379-395 ;  Wade, 
"  O.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  375-394  ;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T. 
Hist.,"  ch.  xiv.  While  reading,  note :  (1)  advance 
of  the  Scythians  ;  (2)  revival  of  prophetic  activity ;  (3) 
causes  and  course  of  Josiah's  reform ;  (4)  great  inter- 


AGE   OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION   AND    DESTRUCTION    105 

national  movements  of  the  period  ;  (5)  rapidly  shifting 
political  conditions  for  Judah ;  (6)  effect  of  Josiah's 
death  upon  religion ;  (7)  revolt  against  Babylon  and  its 
outcome ;  (8)  Jeremiah's  political  activity ;  (9)  expe- 
riences of  the  remnant  left  in  the  land. 

3.  Religious  Value  of  the  History. 

Consider :  (1)  how  it  illustrates  the  futility  of  reform 
measures  imposed  from  without ;  (2)  how,  as  before, 
tlie  greatness  of  a  crisis  only  gave  added  constructive- 
ness  to  prophetic  opinion. 

4.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Combined  Judean  and  Ephraimite  History  (JE). 

To  the  close  of  the  previous  period  or,  more  probably, 
the  early  years  of  this  period  is  to  be  ascribed  the 
combination  of  the  northern  group  of  narratives  with 
tiic  Judean.  \\\  reference  to  this  important  literary 
work,  read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references : 
Kent,  "  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  40,  41 ;  Car- 
penter and  Battcrsby,  "Hex.,"  I.,  pages  171-174; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  47,  48,  not- 
ing: (1)  circumstances  wliicli  led  to  the  compilation  ; 
<^2)  the  way  in  which  the  two  narratives  were  com- 
bined ;  (3)  reasons  for  supposing  that  the  combined  JE 
history  was  compiled  before  the  exile. 

(2)  Book  of  Zej)haniah. 

a.  Structure,  Read  Zcj)haniah  in  the  following  sec- 
tions,   giving  a  title   to  each   section:  1,  2^-3^,  3^"^^, 

1314-20. 

b.  Style.  (1)  Note  cxam])lcs  of  vivid  and  pictur- 
esque expression.  (2)  Consider  whether  the  ])rophccy 
possesses  the  full  strengtli  and  beauty  of  style  found 


106  HEBREW   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

in  the  prophets  of  the  eighth  century.  (3)  Note  the 
beauty  of  the  song  of  triumphant  faith  near  the  end. 
(Perhaps  a  post-exilic  addition.  Certainly  in  strong 
contrast  to  that  which  precedes.) 

c.  Thought.  Note  the  thought  of  Zephaniah  con- 
cerning: (1)  the  civil  and  religious  conditions  of 
Judah;  (2)  the  nature  of  the  "day  of  Jehovah"; 
(3j  the  gathering  of  the  nations  for  destruction,  3*;! 
(4)  hope  for  a  remnant,  3^2,13^ 

d.  Author.  Note  the  genealogy  in  l^.  Very  pos- 
sibly it  is  King  Hezekiah  from  whom  the  prophet  is 
descended.  The  number  of  generations  intervening 
would  accord  very  well  with  the  relative  dates  of  the 
two,  and  it  is  customary  to  name  only  the  prophet's 
father ;  hence  carrying  the  ancestry  back  for  four 
generations  would  seem  to  indicate  some  especial  in- 
terest in  the  line.  If  this  is  the  correct  explanation, 
the  prophet  must  have  been  a  young  prince,  not  far 
from  the  age  of  his  royal  relative.  The  intensity  of  his 
message  harmonizes  with  this  inference  as  to  his  age. 

e.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  for  further  study  of  Zephaniah  :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T." ; 
McFadyen,  "  Introd.  0.  T.  "  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
art.  "Zephaniah";  "  Enc.  Bib.,  "  art.  "Zephaniah"; 
Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Earlier  Prophs.  "  ;  G.  A. 
Smith,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  in  "  Expositor's  Bible  "  ;  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  179 ;  Fowler, 
"Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

1  111  this  "  we  have  the  germ  of  the  apocalyptic  visions  of  later 
prophets," 


AGE   OF  POLITICAL   DIVISION  AND   DESTRUCTION    lOT 

(3)  Deuteronomy  5-26,28. 

a  Thoudit.  Read  the  hortatory  introduction  to  the 
law  proper,  Deuteronomy  5-11,  noting  in  writing  the 
leading  ideas,  with  definite  references  to  chapter  and 
verse. 

With  the  aid  of  an  analysis  of  the  codes  (see  Ben- 
nett and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  72-74;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.,  0.  T.,"  pages  73-75,  '^ Deuteronomy,"  in 
"  Internat.  Crit.  Cora.,"  pages  iv-vii  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  I.,  pages  600,  601 ;  Kent,  "  Messages  Isr's.  Law- 
gvrs.,"  pages  xiii-xxxiii ;  -'Laws  and  Tradit.  Frees.," 
Contents  and  Classification)  look  over  the  laws  of 
Deut.  12-26,  28,  noting:  (1)  how  fully  earlier  codes  are 
embodied  in  these  laws  ;  (2)  whether  laws  concerning 
ritual  or  concerning  social  relations  and  moral  conduct 
are  the  more  prominent.  Reviewing  the  laws,  observe 
indications  of  a  spirit  of  devotion  to  God  and  thought- 
ful consideration  for  humanity  permeating  tliom. 
Compare  the  spirit  of  the  book  with  that  of  the  eighth 
century  prophets. 

For  discussion  of  the  origin,  development,  and  char- 
acter of  the  Deuteronomy  codes,  see  :  Kent,  "  Laws 
and  Tradit.  Frees.,"  Introduction,  iv.,  "  Messages  Isr's. 
Lawgvrs.,"  pages  28-34 ;  Driver,  "  Deuteronomy  "  in 
"  Internat.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages  i-x,  xix-xxxiv,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  70-82. 

b.  Writing  and  Fuljlication.  The  general  order  of 
development  of  Old  Testament  literature  which  has 
been  ascertained  by  the  methods  of  historical  criticism 
rests  upon  arguments  that  are  cumulative.  No  one 
element  serves  as  a  keystone  the  removal  of  which 
will  cause  the  whole  to  fall.     Yet,  if  one  were  called 


108  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

upon  to  select  the  central  point  of  the  entire  discussion, 
Deuteronomy  would  probably  be  cliosen.  It  is  impor- 
tant, therefore,  to  study  with  care  two  or  three  of  the 
following  summaries  of  arguments  concerning  the  date 
of  this  book  :  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  82-99  ; 
"  Deuteronomy,"  in  "  Internat.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages 
xxxiv-lxvii;  Kent,  "  Laws  and  Tradit.  Precs.,"  Intro- 
duction, ii.,  iv. ;  McFadyen,  "Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  51-61 ; 
Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Deuteronomy,"  §  vii. ; 
"Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  1079-1087;  Carpenter  and 
Battersby,  "Hex.,"  I.,  ch.  x.  An  attempt  to  refute 
the  view  presented  in  such  works  as  the  above  may  be 
found  in  MciUer, "  Are  the  Critics  Right  ? "  pages  1-53  ; 
Orr,  "  Problem  of  0.  T.,"  ch.  viii. 

(4)  Jeremiah  (First  Period  :  Josiah's  Reign). 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  prophecies  that  may,  with 
probability,  be  assigned  to  the  first  eighteen  years  of 
Jeremiah's  ministry,  626-608  b.  c,  in  the  following  sec- 
tions, and  note  the  subject  of  each :  1,  2,  3i-5,  36-i8,  3i9_42^ 
43-6,  111  8. 

b.  Thought.  Note:  (1)  the  prophet's  idea  of  his 
commission  and  message  lio-i^-ie ;  ^^2)  his  view  of 
Judah's  attitude  toward  God  2^,  3^  ^-^  (cf.  Hosea) ;  (3) 
descriptions  of  the  prevalent  idolatry  2^^^^^'-^,  6^^ ;  (4) 
ethical  demands  2^\  526-28,  qis  .  (5)  expectations  as  to 
the  nearer  and  more  remote  future  4'^'iS  6i'22'23^  312-13, 

22-25    41,2^ 

c.  Author.  Note:  (1)  Jeremiah's  family  home  1^, 
r.t  First  Kings  226,  Joshua  211^,  Jeremiah  ll^i,  37^2  .  (2) 
date  of  beginning  ministry  V' ;  (3)  age  at  call  1^,  cf  l-"^ ; 
(4)  earliest  record  of  a  prophet's  committing  his  own 
message  to  writing  36i'2.27.28,32 .  ^5)  activity  of  Jeremiah 


AGE    OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION    AND    DESTRUCTION     109 

in  preaching,  perliaps,  the  Denteronomic  covenant,  soon 
after  621  b.  c,  IV'^ 

d.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  for  further  study  of  Jeremiah's  prophecies : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib,  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit. 
0.  T." ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T."  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  art.  "Jeremiah";  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Jeremiah, 
Bk."  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "Messages  Earlier  Prophs."; 
Cheyne,  "Jeremiah:  Life  and  Times,"  in  "Men  of 
Bible  Series";  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.," 
§§  180,  181 ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and 
Preachers." 

(5)  Book  of  Nahum. 

a.  Style.  (1)  Note  the  general  hymn  of  faith  in 
chapter  1,  followed  by  the  more  definite  development  of 
the  prophecy  in  2  and  3.  (2)  Consider  Nahum  as  a 
word  painter. 

b.  Thought.  Note  the  chief  thoughts  of  the  opening 
poem,  and  the  application  of  some  of  its  principles  to 
Nineveh  in  chapters  2  and  8. 

c.  Author.  Tiie  heading  of  the  book  indicates  the 
name  of  the  prophet's  home,  but  three  widely  separated 
places  vie  in  tradition  as  the  spot  named.  One  of  these 
is  near  Nineveh,  one  in  Galilee,  and  the  third  in  the 
south  of  Judea.  The  date  of  Nahum's  ministry  can  be 
placed  with  certainty  between  the  fall  of  No-amon 
(Egyptian  Thebes)  about  661  b.  c,  and  the  destruction 
of  Nineveh,  about  607  b.  c,  see  3^, 

d.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  for  further  study  of  Nahiun :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,   "  Bib.    Int."  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T."  ;  Mc- 


110  HEBREW   mSTORV   AND   LITERATURE 

Fadyen,  "Int.  0.  T. " ;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art. 
"Nahum";  "  Enc.  Bib."  art.  "Nahum";  Sanders  and 
Kent,  "  Messages  of  Earlier  Prophs. "  ;  G.  A.  Smith, 
"Bk.  of  Twelve,"  in  "Expositor's  Bible";  Fowler, 
"  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

(6)  Jeremiah  (Second  Period  :  Jehoiakim's  Reign). 

a.  Structure.  Read,  in  the  following  sections,  the 
prophecies  that  may  with  probability  be  assigned  to  the 
years  between  the  death  of  Josiah  and  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  in  597  b.  c.  :  T^-^o,  721-822,  9,  lO^^-^s,  lis-n^ 
lli8-12«,  12'-i7,  1.31-17,  1318.19,  1320-27^  I4I-I718,  18-20, 
2210-288,  25,  26,  35,  3G,  45,  noting  the  subject  of  each 
section. 

b.  Thought.  Note  Jeremiah's  thought  during  this 
period  as  to  possible  hope  for  Jerusalem,  71-^°,  9,  lOi^'^s^ 
19,  2210-23S  25,  26;  his  picture  of  the  religious  con- 
dition of  his  time,  ll^'i" ;  his  teaching  as  to  the  condi- 
tional character  of  prophecy,  18i-i^ 

c.  Autlior.  Note  the  places  where  Jeremiah  preached, 
72,  116,  19214^  262;  plots  and  persecution,  11^1,1818,202; 
the  prophet's  isolation  162-8 ;  his  inner  struggles,  II20, 
121-6,  1410-13^  1819-23,  20'-i8 ;  his  methods  of  teaching, 
131-9,  181-6,  1910'",  351-11,  36. 

d.  Reference  Literature.  See  under  (4),  d,  substitut- 
ing §§  193-200  for  §§  180,  181  in  Kent,  "Hist.  Heb. 
Peop.,  Hiv.  Kgdm." 

(7)  Habakkuk. 

a.  Structure.  Read  Habakkuk  in  the  following  sec- 
tions, giving  a  title  to  each  section :  1-2^,  2'^-20,  3. 
Note  whether  chapter  3  has  any  close  connection  with 
1  and  2. 


AGE   OF   POLITICAL   DIVISION  AND   DESTRUCTION     111 

b.  Style.  (1)  Note  the  elements  of  bold  imagination 
in  Habakkitk  3,  (There  is  a  strong  possibility  that  this 
poem  may  have  been  taken  from  some  collection  of 
hymns,  and  may  not  be  the  writing  of  Ilabakkuk.  See 
"  Reference  Literature  "  for  discussion.)  (2)  Compare 
the  stvle  of  Habakkuk  1  and  2  with  that  of  Nahum  2 
and  3. 

c.  Thought.  Note  Habakkuk's  picture  of  his  times, 
14 ;  his  problem,  p-^,  i-is^  91 ;  his  answer,  2^^-^-^ 

d.  Author.  Observe  the  personal  note  in  the  proph- 
ecy, revealing  the  period  of  doubt  through  which  the 
prophet  passed  in  attaining  his  faith. 

6.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be 
found  helpful  for  further  study  of  Habakkuk  :  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0  T."; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.  "  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art. 
"  Habakkuk  "  ;  "  Enc.  Bib."  art.  "  Habakkuk  "  ;  Sanders 
and  Kent,  "  ]\Iessagcs  Earlier  Prophs.  " ;  G.  A.  Smith, 
"  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  in  "  Expositor's  Bible  "  ;  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm.,"  §  196  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as 
Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

(8)    Jeremiah  (Third  Period  :  Zedekiah's  Reign). 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  that 
may  with  probability  be  assigned  to  the  years  from  597 
B.  c.  to  the  close  of  his  ministry  after  586  b.  c,  giving  a 
title  to  each  section :  2li-io,  21ii-229,  239-^0,  24,  27-29, 
30-33,  34,  37-39,  40-44,  52.  (Chapters  46-49,  which 
belong  to  different  periods  of  the  ministry,  should  be 
glanced  through  at  this  time  and  their  substance  noted.) 

b.  Thought.  Note:  (1)  Jeremiah's  attitude  toward 
the  exiles  of  597  B.C.,  24^ '\  291-^  10 ;  (2)  liis  policy  for 


112  HEBREW   HISTORY    AND   LITERATURE 

those  remaining,  21^~^^  oS^''^*^ ;  (3)  his  principles  of 
government,  22^"^'^^'^^,  Sl^"^^'^' ;  (4)  his  declarations 
regarding  the  ultimate  future,  32-33 ;  (5)  his  last 
teaching,  44. 

c.  Author.  Rereading  the  passages  belonging  to  this 
period,  note  the  experiences  of  Jeremiah  from  597-586 
B.  c.  in  his  relations  with  :  (1)  king  and  nobles  ;  (2)  the 
captives  of  597  b.  c.  ;  (3)  false  prophets.  Note  also  his 
fate  after  586  b.  c. 

d.  Reference  Literature.  See  under  (4),  d,  substitut- 
ing §§  201-206,  210-212  for  §§  193-200  in  Kent, 
^'Hist.  Heb.  Peop.,  Div.  Kgdm." 

(9)   Ezelviel   (First  Period :    Until  Jerusalem's  De- 
struction). 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  that 
fall  within  the  first  period  of  his  ministry  (592-586)  in 
the  following  groups,  and  note,  in  writing,  the  general 
subject  of  each  group :  1-3,  4-5,  6-7,  8-11, 12-19,  20- 
23, '24,  29i-i«,  30,  31. 

b.  Style.  (1)  Compare  the  elaborate  symbolism  of 
Ezekiel  {e.g.,  l^'^s^  41-3.4-8,  82,3,  121-^)  with  Isaiah's 
abundant  figurative  language  (see  §  33,  5,  (2),  b),  noting 
the  difference  in  literary  quality.  (2)  Note  Ezekiel's 
painstaking  accuracy  in  dates  and  details. 

c.  Thought.  Note  :  (1)  the  principal  theme  of 
Ezekiel's  message  during  the  first  period  of  his  min- 
istry ;  (2)  the  prophet's  conception  of  Jehovah's  pres- 
ence in  Babylon  :  1^8,  3^3,  lli^-ie ;  (3)  teaching  that 
Jehovah  has  left  Jerusalem,  10^^,19  j  Q^~y  picture  of 
religious  conditions  in  Jerusalem  that  justified  leaving, 
89-16 .  ^5-^  teaching  as  to  relation  of  God  and  individual, 

]^8*'5-9,10-13,20,21,24^ 


AGE  OF  POLITICAL  DIVISION  AND    DESTRUCTION     113 

d.  Author.  Note  :  (1)  place  and  time  of  Ezekiel's 
repeated  call,  1^"^  322-23  .  ^^2)  dates  of  prophecies  before 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  ;  (3)  the  prophet's  life  in  Baby- 
lonia V'^  3153,  8\  141,  201,  2415,16. 

e.  Reference  Literature.  The  following  arc  sug- 
gested for  aid  in  further  study  of  Ezekiel :  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int."  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  O.  T." ; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T." ;  A.  B.  Davidson,  "  Ezekiel," 
in  "Camb.  Bib.";  Skinner,  "Ezekiel,"  in  "Expos. 
Bib."  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Ezekiel  "  ;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  art.  "  Ezekiel  "  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages 
Later  Prophs." ;  Toy,  "Ezekiel,"  in  "Sac.  Bks.  0. 
and  N.  Ts." ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and 
Preachers." 

(10)    Poetry  of  the  Age  of  the  Monarchy. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  Old  Testament 
criticism  is  confronted,  when  an  effort  is  made  to  as- 
sign the  separate  Psalms  to  the  times  in  which  they 
were  written.  The  consideration  of  the  growth  and 
structure  of  the  Psalter  as  a  whole  must  be  taken  up 
near  the  close  of  Old  Testament  history,  when  the  col- 
lection was  completed.  At  the  end  of  the  history  of 
the  monarchy,  however,  we  should  consider  some  psalms 
which  seem  by  their  allusions  to  presuppose,  more  or 
less  clearly,  the  existence  of  the  pre-exilic  kingdom. 
Such  are  2,  18,  20,  21,  28,  45,  61,  72,  76,  89, 101, 110. 
In  reading  these,  note  :  (1)  the  subject  of  each  poem  ; 
(2)  its  prevailing  spirit ;  (3)  elements  of  imaginative 
power ;  (4)  any  allusions  that  tend  to  fix  the  dates. 

Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  for  further  study  of  the  above  psalms:  Bennett 


114  HEBREW   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T."  ; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  "  Messages  of  the  Psalm- 
ists "  ;  Kirkpatrick,  "  Book  of  Pss."  ;  Perowne,  "  The 
Psahns  "  ;  Cheyne,  "  Psalms  "  ;  Skinner, "  Psalms,"  in 
«  Camb.  Bib." 

(11)  Wisdom  Literatnre  of  the  Age  of  the  Monarchy. 

The  book  of  Proverbs,  like  that  of  Psalms,  is  a 
collection  made  up  of  earlier  collections,  and  completed 
at  a  very  late  date  in  the  history  of  Israel.  Tiie  por- 
tions generally  considered  to  be  earliest  are  10-22^^ 
and,  possibly,  25-29.  Means  for  determining  the  exact 
place  in  the  history  of  these  groups  of  proverbs  are  not 
available.  Frequent  references  to  the  king,  however, 
suggest  a  pre-exilic  origin  for  many  of  the  proverbs, 
if  not  for  the  completed  collections.  A  few  chapters 
of  each  section  should  be  read,  noting :  (1)  the  form 
of  the  proverbs  included  (i.  6.,  wdiether  distichs,  tris- 
tichs)  ;  (2)  nature  of  the  questions  dealt  with;  (3)  re- 
ligious and  moral  tone  of  the  proverbs. 

Reference  Literature.  The  following  will  be  found 
helpful  for  further  study  of  the  above  collections  of  prov- 
erbs :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int."  ;  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.  "  ;  McFadyen,  "^"  Int.  0.  T.  "  ;  Toy,  "  Prov- 
erbs," in  "  Internat.  Crit.  Com.  " ;  Kent,  "  Wise  Men 
of  Anc.  Isr.  and  Their  Proverbs." 


PART   II 

EARLY   JEWISH   HISTORY   AND 
LITERATURE 


VI 

AGE   OF  THE   BABYLONIAN  EXILE 
(586-538  B.  c.) 

§  35.  Period  op  Earlier  Years  of  Exile  (586- 
561  B.C.). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)    BiblicaL 

a.  Lack  of  Connected  Narratives.  Notice  :  (1)  tlie 
conclusion  of  the  series  of  historical  narratives,  Gene- 
sis to  Second  Kings  ;  (2)  omission  of  the  exile  in  the 
Chronicler's  narrative,  First  Chron.  to  Neh.  ;  (3)  Kent, 
"Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  1. 

b.  Prophetic  and  Poetic  Literature. 

(a)  Jeremiah  24,  29,  44.  Read  these  chapters  in 
connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  2,  noting 
the  light  that  they  throw  upon  the  history.  The  his- 
torical connection  of  the  passages  is  noted  also  in  : 
Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  260,  261,  264  ;  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  204-207. 

(^)  Ezekiel  25-48.  Look  over  these  chapters  in 
connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  3, 
noting  :  (1)  dates  of  the  prophecies  ;  (2)  light  that 
they  throw  upon  the  history  of  their  times.  The  his- 
torical connection  of  the  chapters  is  noted  in  :  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  286-294  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"Bib.  Int.,"  pages  218-221. 


118     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

(c)  Obadiah.  Read  the  prophecy  in  connection  with 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  9,  noting  the  picture  of 
conditions  in  Judea  at  the  time  of  Jerusalem's  fall. 
The  historical  connection  of  the  prophecy  is  discussed 
also  in  Bennett  and  Adcney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  243, 
241;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  318-321; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  193-195  ;  Sanders  and 
Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs.,"  pages  67-69 ;  G.  A. 
Smith,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  IL,  in  "  Expos.  Bib.,"  pages 
163-172. 

(f?)  Lamentations.  In  connection  with  Kent, "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  10  (first  part)  read  these  dirges, 
noting  the  picture  they  give  of  Jerusalem  after  her 
fall.  The  historical  background  of  these  poems  is 
discussed  also  in  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.," 
pages  210-212;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages 
461-465  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  295-297  ; 
Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Lamentations  ;  "  "  Enc. 
Bib. "  art.  "  Lamentations,"  III.,  cols.  2700-2705.  In 
the  last  reference,  Cheyne  advocates  a  post-exilic  date 
for  the  poems. 

(e)  Psalms  42,  43.  Read  this  poem  (it  is  a  single 
poem),  noting  the  picture  it  gives  of  one  going  into 
exile.  The  actual  date  of  writing  is  doubtful  ;  see 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  10  (latter  part)  ;  Per- 
ow-ne,  "Psalms,"  I.,  pages  361,  362;  Kirkpatrick, 
"  Psalms,"  pages  226,  227  (dates  before  Babylonian 
exile). 

(2)  Extra  Biblical. 

a.  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Babylonian  Writers.  Read 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  12. 


AGE   OF  BABYLONIAN  EXILE  119 

b.  Inscriptions  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  Reign.  See 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  13  (drst  part) ;  Price, 
"  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  215-218.  Note  the  char- 
acter of  Nebuchadrezzar's  inscriptions  thus  far  dis- 
covered, 

2.  Greneral  Discussion  of  the  History. 

(1)  General  Outline  of  Period  and  Significance  of  the 
Age. 

a.  Note  on  the  chart,  frontispiece,  in  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.  "  :  (1)  the  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  rul- 
ers of  the  period  ;  (2)  signiiicance  of  year  561. 

b.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  Preface. 

(2)  Detailed  Discussion. 

Read  both  of  the  following :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish 
Peop."  pages  17-44;  H.  P.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages 
301-327.  While  reading,  note  :  (1)  the  three  centres 
of  Jewish  population  after  586  ;  (2)  condition  of  the 
people  remaining  in  Judea;  (3)  condition  and  ultimate 
fate  of  the  Jewish  refugees  in  Egypt ;  (4)  character  of 
the  exiles  in  Babylon  as  compared  witli  the  remainder 
of  their  countrymen  ;  (5)  conditions  of  life  for  the  Jews 
in  Babylonia  under  Nebuchadrezzar ;  (6)  religious  con- 
dition of  Babylonian  exiles. 

For  the  Babylonian  history  of  the  time,  see  Good- 
speed,  "Hist.  Babs.  and  Assyrs. ,"  pages  333-348; 
Rogers,  "  Hist.  Bab.  and  Assyr.,"  II.  pages  316-353. 

3.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Ezekiel  25-48  (Second  Period:  After  Jerusa- 
lem's Destruction). 

a.  Chapters  25-32  :  Against  the  Nations.  From  this 
section   of    Ezekiel,    read    25,    27^  ^g^   32^"  32^   noting; 


120      EARLY  JEWISH  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

(1)  attitude  of  Judah's  neighbors  at  her  fall ;  (2)  the 
elaborate  figure  used  in  describing  Tyre ;  (3)  quaint 
and  complex  form  of  the  dirge  over  Egypt. 

b.  Chapters  33-39 :  Prophecies  of  Comfort.  Read 
at  least  the  following  passages  from  this  important 
section  of  Ezekiel,  33,  36,  37,  38,  noting:  (1)  the  sub- 
ject of  each  prophecy  ;  (2)  the  prophet's  conception  of 
the  basis  of  divine  action  ;  (3)  promises  for  the  future 
of  Israel ;  (4)  general  theme  of  the  section ;  (5)  con- 
trast with  subject  of  prophecies  before  586  (account  for 
Ezekiel's  change  in  tone). 

c.  Chapters  40-48 :  The  New  Temple.  Read  at  least 
the  following,  40,  43,  44,  45^-46,  noting  that  the 
prophet  really  sketches  a  readjustment  of  the  Israelitish 
state,  making  religious  interests  supreme.  A  compre- 
hension of  chs.  40-43,  46  will  be  aided  by  the  plans  on 
pages  294  and  299  of  Davidson's  "  Ezekiel." 

d.  Personality  and  Work  of  the  Prophet.  Read  one 
or  more  of  the  following  references:  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jew- 
ish Peop.,"  pages  45-58;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I., 
pages  814-817;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  XL,  cols.  1456-1459; 
A.  B.  Davidson,  "  Ezekiel  "  in  "  Camb.  Bib.,"  pages  xvii- 
xxxi.  In  readmg,  note :  (1)  the  prophet's  education 
and  character ;  (2)  his  new  methods  of  teaching ; 
(3)  The  significance  of  his  assertion  that  henceforth 
God  would  deal  with  the  individual  Israelite,  (4)  the 
revolutionary  character  of  his  ideals  for  the  restored 
community,  and  their  influence  in  shaping  the  thinking 
of  its  leaders. 

e.  Reference  Literature.  For  general  discussion  of 
Ezekiel's  prophecies,  reference  may  be  made  to :  Ben- 
nett  and   Adeney,   "  Bib.    Int. "  ;   Driver,   "  Int.    Lit. 


AGE   OF   BABYLONIAN   EXILE  121 

0.  T. "  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.  "  ;  Sanders  and  Kent, 
"•  Messages  Later  Prophs."  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I., 
pages  817-820;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Ezekiel,  Bk. "  ; 
A.  B.  Davidson,  "Ezekiel"  in  "Camb.  Bib."  ;  Skinner, 
"  Ezekiel "  in  "  Expos.  Bib."  For  discnssion  of  the  in- 
fluence of  Ezekiel's  ideal  code  upon  Jewish  law,  see : 
Kent,  "  Messages  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.,"  pages  34,  35 ; 
"  Laws  and  Tradit.  Frees.,"  Litroduction. 

(2)  Obadiah. 

Read  the  prophecy  in  the  following  sections :  vv. 
1-16,  17-21,  noting:  (1)  the  theme  of  each  part; 
(2)  Obadiah's  picture  of  the  day  of  judgment  upon  the 
nations  ;  (3)  hope  of  a  restored  remnant ;  (4)  similarity 
between  vv.  1-9  and  Jer.  49'"^^.  There  are  differences 
of  opinion  regarding  the  actual  date  of  composition. 
For  discussion  of  the  book,  reference  may  be  made  to : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.  "  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 
O.  T."  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.  "  ;  Sanders  and  Kent, 
"  Messages  Later  Prophs. "  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of 
Twelve  "  in  "  Expos.  Bib."  ;  Fowler, "  Prophs.  as  States- 
men and  Preachers";  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art. 
"  Obadiali,  Bk.  of  "  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Obadiah,  Bk." 

(3)  Lamentations. 

Read  the  five  poems,  noting:  (1)  theme  of  each; 
(2)  characteristic  rhythm  of  the  first  four  —  a  long 
vei'se  member,  divided  by  a  natural  pause  into  a  longer 
and  shorter  part ;  (3)  poetic  imagery  and  feeling  in  the 
elegies. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  concern- 
ing this  book:  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
210-213  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  456-405 ; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.   0.   T.,"  pages  294-297  ;  Hastings, 


122     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

"Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Lamentations";  "  Ene.  Bib.,"  art. 
"  Lamentations."  In  reading,  note  especially  descrip- 
tion of  the  alphabetic  form  and  metrical  structure  of 
the  poems. 

(4)  Song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32i"43. 

Read  the  poem,  noting:  (1)  its  theme  ;  (2)  bold  and 
striking  passages.  For  discussion  of  date  and  other 
questions  see:  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  96,  97, 
"  Deuteronomy,"  in  "Internat.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages  344- 
348;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  page  50.  For  a  vivid 
interpretation  see  :  George  Adam  Smith,  "  Hist.  Geog. 
Holy  Land,"  pages  85-90. 

(5)  Holiness  Code,  Leviticus  11,  17-26. 

(1)  Look  over  the  chapters,  noticing  the  subjects 
emphasized  in  this  code.  (2)  Observe  the  large  num- 
ber of  parallels  between  this  code  and  the  laws  of 
Deuteronomy  ;  see  table  of  Driver  in  "  Int.  Lit.  O.  T.," 
pages  73, 74, "  Deuteronomy  "  in  "  Internat.  Crit.  Com.," 
pages  iv-vii,  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  600,601, 
or  of  Kent,  in  "  Messages  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.,"  pages  xiii- 
xxxiii, "  Laws  and  Tradit.  Frees.,"  Contents  and  Classifi- 
cation. (3)  Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  discus- 
sions :  Kent,  "  Messages  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.,"  pages  36-41 ; 
"  Laws  and  Tradit.  Frees.,"  Introduction,  v. ;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  47-59;  H.  F.  Smith,  "0.  T. 
Hist.,"  pages  332-338 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
31-34.  In  reading,  note:  (1)  influences  which  gave 
rise  to  the  codification  of  these  priestly  laws ;  (2)  evi- 
dence for  the  late  date  of  these  codes ;  (3)  origin  of 
name  "  Holiness  Code  "  ;  (4)  relations  of  these  laws 
to  Ezekiel ;  (5)  probable  date  of  completed  code ;  (6) 
indications  of  earlier  date  of  material  included. 


AGE   OF  BABYLONIAN  EXILE  123 

4.    Tlie  Results  of  the  Period. 

This  first  half  of  the  exile  has  been  exhibited  as  a 
time  of  much  constructive  as  well  as  consolatory  think- 
ing. The  dominant  thought  in  the  minds  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Jewish  community  in  Babylonia  was  an  avoid- 
ance for  the  future  of  the  errors  and  sins  which  liad 
compelled  Jehovah  to  permit  his  people  to  be  brought 
to  their  senses  by  the  severe  discipline  of  exile.  In 
order  to  grasp  the  real  significance  of  this  quarter- 
century,  consider :  (1)  the  apathy  of  the  people  at  its 
beginning  (Ezek.  37^^)  ;  (2)  the  leader  who  assumed 
the  task  of  encouraging  and  assuring  them ;  (3)  his 
bold  but  effective  method  of  procedure, — sketcliing  the 
future  community  and  indicating  its  guiding  principles  ; 
(4)  the  co-ordinate  activity  of  the  priesthood  ;  (5)  the 
scheme  of  well  ordered  community  life  which  they  de- 
sired to  bring  about ;  (6)  the  incidental  proof  that  the 
people  did  follow  Jeremiah's  advice  (Jer.  29*"'). 

§  36.   Period  of  Later  Years  of  Exile  (501-538 
B.  c). 
1.    Sources. 

(1)  Biblical. 

a.  Isaiah  13-14''^''.  Read  this  passage  in  connection 
with  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  l*eop.,"  §§  4,  5,  noting: 
(1)  its  historical  background  ;  (2)  probable  date.  The 
passage  is  put  in  its  historical  connection  also  in : 
Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  211,  212;  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  117,  118  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  '^  Isaiah  " 
in  "  Expos.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  405-415. 

b.  Isaiah  21^"^*^.  Read  the  passage,  noting  itsliistor- 
ical  background.     For   discussion   of  the  date  of  the 


124     EARLY   JEWISH   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

prophecy,   see:  Driver,  "Int.   Lit.   O.   T.,"  page  216; 
McFadyeu,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  120,  121. 

c.  Jeremiah  50-51.  Read  the  chapters  in  connec- 
tion with  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  2,  noting: 
(1)  difference  in  point  of  view  from  genuine  prophe- 
cies of  Jeremiah ;  (2)  historical  background  implied ; 
(3)  probable  date.  The  passage  is  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  the  later  years  of  exile  in  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  266-268.  The  view  tliat  it  is  a 
post-exilic  prophecy  is  presented  in  McFadyen,  "  Int. 
0.  T.,"  pages  154-156. 

d.  Isaiah  40-55.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  6-8, read  Isa.  40-55,  noting:  (1)  all 
statements  in  40-48  concerning  a  deliverer,  Babylon, 
idolatry  ;  (2)  attitude  of  the  Jews  in  exile  ;  (3)  change 
in  point  of  view  in  chs.  49-55. 

(2)  Extra  Biblical. 

a.  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Babylonian  writers.  Read 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  12. 

b.  Inscriptions  of  Neriglissar  and  Nabonidus.  Read 
Kent,"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  13  (latter  part)  ;  Price, 
"  Mons.  and  O.  T.,"  pages  220-225,  noting:  (1)  char- 
acter of  Neriglissar's  inscriptions  ;  (2)  contents  and 
importance  of  Nabonidus's  inscriptions. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History/. 

Read  one  or  both  of  the  following  :  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,  "  pages  66-78,  93-98  ;  H.  P.  Smith,  pages 
327-343.  In  reading,  note  :  (1)  fate  of  Nebuchadrez- 
zar's dynasty ;  (2)  character  of  his  three  successors  ; 
(3)  history  of  Cyrus's  career  from  549-539  ;  (4)  effects 
of  Cyrus's  successes  upon  the  Jewish  exiles  ;  (5)  politi- 


AGE   OF    BABYLONIAN  EXILE  125 

cal    consequences    of     the    exile    for    the    Judeans; 
(6)  religious  effects  of  the  exile. 

For  further  account  of  the  Babylonian  history  of 
this  period,  see  :  Goodspeed, "  Hist.  Babs.  and  Assyrs.," 
pages  349,  350,  367-373;  Rogers,  "Hist.  Bab.  and 
Assyr.,"  II.,  pages  354-376. 

3.    Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Work  of  the  Late  Prophetic  Deuteronomic 
Editors. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Kent, 
"  Beginnings  licb.  Hist.,"  pages  42,  43  ;  II.  P.  Smith, 
"  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  332,  333  ;  Carpenter  and  Bat- 
tersby,  "  Hexateuch,"  I.,  pages  174-176  ;  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §§50-53.  In  reading,  note:  (1)  ex- 
pansion of  earlier  book  of  Deuteronomy ;  (2)  editing  of 
JE.  and  combination  of  Deuteronomy  with  it;  (3)  com- 
position of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings  in  substantially 
their  present  form. 

(2)  Exilic  Prophecies  in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah. 

a.  Isaiah  132-14^^  21i-io,  Jeremiah  50,  51.  See  1, 
(1),  a,  b,  c. 

]j.  Isaiah  40—48.  Read  the  chapters  in  the  follow- 
ing sections  :  40-41,  42i-9,  42i0-48,  noting:  (1)  subject 
of  each  section  ;  2)  poetic  imagery  and  illustrations  ; 
(3)  dramatic  qualities  ;  (4)  declarations  regarding  the 
character  and  power  of  God ;  (5)  circumstances  which 
called  forth-  this  group  of  prophecies  and  purpose  of 
the  whole. 

c.  Isaiah  49-55.  Read  the  chapters  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections:  49^1^  49i*-503,  50*^^^"),  51-5212, 
5213-53,  54,  55,  noting:  (1)  subject  of  each  section; 
(2)    portrait  of  the  Servant ;    (3)  picture  of   Israel's 


126     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND,  LITERATURE 

future  ;  (4)  poetic    imagery,  personification,    and   dra- 
matic tendency. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  discussions  of 
Isaiah  40-55  :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,  pages  79- 
92;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,  pages  185-193; 
Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  230-246 ;  McFadyen, 
"Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  129-135;  Sanders  and  Kent, 
"Messages  Later  Props.,"  pages  149-160;  G.  A.  Smith, 
"Isaiah,"  II.,  in  "Expos.  Bib.";  Hastings,  IL,  pages 
493-497  ;  Skinner,  "  Isaiah  40-66,"  in  "Camb.  Bib. ;  " 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Isaiah,  Bk."  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as 
Statesmen  and  Preachers."  Of  the  foregoing  all  except 
Driver,  G.  A.  Smith,  and  Skinner  regard  Isa.  56-66  as 
post-exilic  in  date  and  quite  distinct  from  40-55. 
G.  A.  Smith  is  inclined  to  date  at  least  part  of  the 
prophecies  of  the  group  56-66  after  the  exile  ;  Skinner 
seems  to  regard  the  date  as  an  open  question,  while 
Driver  treats  40-66  as  one  group  of  prophecies. 

4.    Results  of  tlie  Period. 

Note :  (1)  how  the  attempt  of  the  prophetic  writer  to 
encourage  the  Jews  to  expect  deliverance  from  the  grip 
of  Babylonia  resulted  in  a  wonderfully  comprehensive 
description  of  God  ;  (2)  how  the  resistless  Persian  is 
welcomed  but  strictly  classed  as  God's  tool ;  (3)  how 
the  promises  to  the  people  take  for  granted  a  regene- 
rated, repentant  Israel  ;  (4)  how  the  experiences  of 
exile  eliminated  idolatry  as  a  serious  danger;  (5)  how 
the  thought  of  Israel's  serviceableness  to  the  world  and 
of  her  sufferings  as  redemptive  and  enlightening  be- 
comes prominent :  (6)  how  these  ideas  of  holy  service 
and  Ezekiel's  ideals  of  holy  seclusion  represent  two 
opposed,  though  equally  sincere  theories  of  human 
redemption. 


VII 

THE  PERSIAN  AGE 

§  37.   Period  of  Partial  Restoration  (538-c.  450 
B.  c). 
1.    Sources. 

(1)  Biblical. 

a.  Ezra  1-6.  In  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  88-93,  read  Ezra  1-6,  or  read  these 
chapters  as  arranged  in  Kent,  "Isr's.  Hist,  and  Biog. 
Nars.,"  pages  339-348,  together  with  pages  29,  30.  The 
general  characteristics  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  as  an  his- 
torical sonrce,  with  the  analysis  of  Ezra  1-6  are  also 
given  in  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  540,  541, 
544-549;  Bennett  and  Adcney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
117-119;  McFadycn,  "Int.  O.  T.,"  pages  332,  333, 
336,  338-343. 

b.  Ilaggai.  Read  the  prophecies,  noting  :  (1)  dates 
of  Haggai's  prophecies  (for  interpretation  of  his  dates, 
cf.  chronological  chart,  frontisi)iece,  in  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.")  ;  (2)  conditions  existing  in  Jerusalem  in 
Haggai's  time  ;  (3)  the  sole  purpose  of  his  prophecies ; 
(4)  measure  of  success  in  accomplishing  purpose.  Note 
the  references  to  Haggai  in  Ezra  5^  6^^. 

For  discussion  concerning  the  historical  connection 
of  Haggai's  proj)hecics,  reference  may  be  made  to : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 


128     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE 

O.  T.  "  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs."  ; 
G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve  "  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as 
Statesmen  and  Preachers." 

c.  Zechariah  1-8.  Read  these  prophecies,  noting: 
(1)  their  chronological  relation  with  those  of  Haggai 
(Recall  the  relation  of  the  prophets  indicated  in  Ezra 
5^,  6^*)  ;  (2)  moral  and  spiritual  preparation  for  Israel's 
glorious  future  pictured  in  the  vision  ;  (3)  future  antici- 
pated for  Jerusalem  in  this  prophecy. 

d.  Isaiah  56-62.  Read  the  chapters  in  connection 
with  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  101,  noting: 
(1)  allusions  tending  to  fix  their  date  within  the  half- 
century  before  Nehemiah  ;  (2)  unworthy  character  of 
leaders  and  of  worship  at  this  time  ;  (3)  discourage- 
ment of  the  period.  These  chapters  are  presented  in 
connection  with  their  post-exilic  historical  setting  also 
in  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  193,194; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T./'  pages  135-137, 138  ;  Sanders 
and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs.,"  pages  252-255. 
Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  234-236,  outlines  the 
contents  of  these  chapters,  but  does  not  treat  them  in 
post-exilic  setting  (see  §  36,  3,  (2),  c). 

(2)    Extra  Biblical. 

a.  Jewish  and  Greek  Histories.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  107.  Note  on  the  chart,  frontispiece, 
Kent,  "  H.  J.  P.,"  the  relations  of  Greeks  and  Persians 
in  this  period. 

b.  Inscriptions  of  Nabonidus,  Cyrus,  and  Darius. 
Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  13  (latter  part), 
"  Isr's.  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  503-505  ;  Price, 
"  Mons.  and  0.  T.,"  pages  225-231  ;  Maspero,  "  Pass- 
ing of  Empires,"  page  683  ;  Sayce,  "  Records  of  Past," 


THE   PERSIAN  AGE  129 

I.,  pages  107-130  (Rawlinson's  translation  of  Bchistun 
Inscription).  While  reading,  note  :  (1)  the  general 
agreement  of  the  two  accounts  of  Babylon's  fall;  (2) 
policy  of  Cyrus  toward  religion  of  conquered  peoples; 
(3)  revolts  in  early  years  of  Darius's  reign. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  120-166  ;  H.  P.  Smith, 
"  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  xvi.  ;  Wade,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages 
464-473.  Kent  and  H.  P.  Smith  present  the  view, 
now  widely  held,  that  tlie  early  restoration  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  were  accomplished 
largely  by  the  Jews  who  had  remained  in  Palestine, 
and  that  there  was  no  considerable  return  of  exiles 
from  Babylon  within  the  years  immediately  after  538. 
AVade  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  period,  following  the 
traditional  view  on  this  question.  G.  A.  Smith  ably 
maintains  the  older  view  in  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  II.,  pages 
204-221.  In  reading  concerning  the  period,  note : 
(1)  the  true  history  of  the  fall  of  Babylon;  (2)  policy 
of  Cyrus  toward  conquered  peoples ;  (3)  application 
of  his  policy  to  the  Jews  ;  (4)  arguments  as  to  the 
pro])ability  or  improbability  of  a  general  return  of 
exiles  from  Babylon  soon  after  its  fall ;  (5)  history 
and  general  state  of  the  Judean  community  from  538 
to  520  ;  (6)  course  of  events  in  the  Persian  empire 
from  538-520 ;  (7)  influences  leading  to  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  temple  ;  (8)  history  of  rebuilding ;  (9)  the 
political  condition  of  Judea  as  a  sub-province  of  the 
Persian  Empire ;  (10)  Judali's  relations  wnth  her 
neighbors  from  516  to  450;  (11)  moral  and  religious 
conditions  of  the  Judean  community  from  516  to  450. 

9 


130     EAllLY  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

3.   Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Haggai. 

a.  Structure  and  Thought.  Read  the  book  in  the 
followhig  sections  :  li"",  l^^-is,  2^-\  2io-i9,  220-22^  noting : 
(1)  the  order  of  the  prophecies  ;  (2)  motives  to  which 
Haggai  appeals ;  (3)  his  interpretation  of  the  commu- 
nity's misfortunes  ;  (4)    his  hope  for  the  future. 

b.  Author  and  style.  Note :  (1)  characteristics  of 
Haggai  as  a  man  ;  (2)  possibility  that  he  may  have 
been,  at  this  time,  an  old  man  who  had  seen  the  former 
temple  (2"^) ;  (3)  literary  style  of  Haggai's  message  in 
contrast  to  the  prophecies  previously  studied. 

c.  Reference  Literature.  For  discussion  of  various 
aspects  of  this  prophecy,  see  :  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"Bib.  Int.";  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T." ;  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T."  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later 
Prophs."  ;  Fowler,  "  Frophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preach- 
ers " ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bli.  of  Twelve,"  11. 

(2)  Zechariah  1-8. 

a.  Structure.  Read  the  chapters  in  the  following 
sections  :  l^-^  17-17,  118-21,  21-^,  2^ -i3,  3,  4,  S^"*,  b^'^\ 
gi-8^  g9-i5,  7,  g  Note  how  the  prophecies  in  V-Q^ 
naturally  group  themselves  together.  Treating  this 
group  as  one  section,  give  a  title  to  each  of  the  five 
sections  into  which  the  book  is  then  divided. 

b.  Thought.  Note :  (1)  the  apparent  meaning  of 
each  symbolic  vision  and  act  in  V-Q^.  (For  help  in 
interpreting,  see  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.," 
pages  256,  257 ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  345, 
346  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  222-224  ;  Sanders 
and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs.,"  pages  212-227  ; 


THE  PERSIAN  AGE  131 

Fowler,  "  Proplis.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers,"  pages 
113-115  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  IL,  pages 
217-319);  (2)  the  prophet's  conception  of  the  moral 
requirements  of  Jehovah;  (3)  hope  for  Jerusalem's 
future. 

(3)  Priestly  Teachings.  Leviticus  1-3,  5-7,  11-15, 
Numbers  5,  6,  15,  1914-22, 

Read  these  passages,  noting :  (1)  the  frequently 
recurring  formulas  that  suggest  connection  among  tliem  ; 
(2)  subjects  treated.  For  discussion  of  the  date  and 
character  of  these  teachings  and  ordinances,  see  Kent, 
''  Messages  Isr's.  Lawgvrs.,"  page  41,  "  Laws  and 
Tradit.  Precs.,"  Introduction,  vi. 

(4)  Isaiah  56-62. 

a.  Thought.  Read  the  chapters  in  the  following 
sections  :  56^~\  569-57,  58i-i2,  SS^^.w,  59,  60-62,  notmg: 
(1)  the  subject  of  each  prophecy;  (2)  teaching  as  to 
the  ground  of  union  with  Jehovali's  people,  as  to  sacri- 
fice, as  to  the  Sabbath  ;  (3)  pictures  of  the  future. 

b.  Reference  Literature.  For  discussion  of  these 
chapters  reference  may  be  made  to  Bennett  and  Ade- 
ney,  "  Bib.  Int."  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T."  ;  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T." ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later 
Prophs."  ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preach- 
ers "  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Isaiah,"  II.,  in  "  Expos.  Bib." ; 
Skinner,  "  Isaiah  40-66  "  in  "  Camb.  Bib." 

4.    Conclusions  regarding  the  Period. 

Consider :  (1)  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  so 
small  a  section  of  the  exiled  Jews  took  advantage  of 
the  permission  of  Cyrus  to  go  back  to  Palestine.  Did 
it  argue  disloyalty?  (2)  the  consequences  of  their  re- 
maining in  such  niiinljcrs  in  other  countries  ;  (3)    the 


132     EARLY  JEWISH  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

political  standing  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  ;  (4)  the 
direction  given  to  their  hopes  ;  (5)  was  the  rebuilding 
of  the  temple  as  significant  as  Haggai  supposed  ?  (6)  is 
it  strange  that  the  great  leaders  of  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding periods  are  almost  wholly  unknown  ? 

§  38.  Period  of  Restoration  of  the  City  Walls 
AND  Establishment  of  the  Priestly  Law  (c.  450- 
332  B.  c). 

1.    Sources. 
(1)  Biblical. 

a.  Ezra  7-10,  Nehemiah.  Read  these  narratives  in 
connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  94-98, 
or  read  them  as  arranged  in  Kent, "  Isr.'s  Hist,  and  Biog. 
Nars.,"  pages  349-384  together  with  pages  30-34.  In 
reading,  note  :  (1)  proposed  rearrangement  of  the  nar- 
ratives ;  (2)  earlier  sources  used  by  the  Chronicler; 
(3)  elements  due  to  his  own  hand.  Analysis  of  the 
narratives  is  given  also  in  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit,  0.  T.," 
pages  541-545,  549-552  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  117-121  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
333-346  ;  "  Messages  Proph.  and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages 
314-318. 

b.  Malachi.  Read  the  book  in  connection  with 
Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  100,  noting :  (1)  grounds 
for  dating  Malachi  shortly  before  the  Nehemiah-Ezra 
reform ;  (2)  social  and  religious  conditions  pictured  in 
the  book.  The  book  is  discussed  in  connection 
with  its  historical  background  also  in  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  264-266 ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit. 
0.  T.,"  pages  355-358 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
234-237  ;  Sanders  and  Kent, "  Messages  Later  Prophs.," 


THE   PERSIAN   AGE  133 

pages  240-244 ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and 
Preachers,"  pages  118-121;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of 
Twelve,"  II.,  in  "  Expos.  Bib.,"  pages  331-340. 

c.  Isaiah  63-66,  34,  35,  24-27.  Read  the  prophecies 
in  connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  102, 
103,  noting  the  light  that  they  seem  to  throw  upon  the 
closing  century  of  Persian  rule.  These  chapters  are 
presented  in  connection  with  a  post-exilic  historical 
setting  also  in  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later 
Prophs.,"  pages  308,  309,  310-312,  272-274,  279-285, 
313-319 ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  194, 
195,  181,  182, 183, 184. 

d.  Joel.  Read  the  book  in  connection  with  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  104,  noting :  (1)  apparently 
peaceful  political  background ;  (2)  dominance  of 
priestly  ritual ;  (3)  allusion  to  the  Greeks.  This 
prophecy  is  treated  in  connection  with  the  closing 
century  of  the  Persian  age  also  in  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  337-340 ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Mes- 
sages Later  Prophs.,"  pages  289-293 ;  G.  A.  Smith, "  Bk. 
of  Twelve,"  IL,  in  "Expos.  Bib.,"  381-397;  Fowler, 
"Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers."  Driver  ("  Int.," 
pages  307-312)  and  McFadyen  ("  Int.,"  pages  183-187) 
favor  the  post-exilic  origin  of  the  book,  but  do  not  date 
it  definitely  within  the  century  under  consideration. 

(2)  Extra  Biblical.  ' 

Jewish  and  Greek  histories.  See  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jew- 
ish Peop.,"  §§  107,  219,  220. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  one  or  more  of  the  following  refer- 
ences ;  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  167-238 ;  H. 


134     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

P.  Smith,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  xvii. ;  Wade,  "0.  T.  Hist.," 
pages  473-490.  As  indicated  by  his  rearrangement 
of  the  sources,  ah-eady  noticed  (1,  (1),  a),  Kent  holds 
tlie  view  that  the  work  of  Nehemiah  preceded  that  of 
Ezra.  H.  P.  Smith  regards  Nehemiah  as  the  leader  of 
the  great  reform  movement,  and  considers  Ezra  as 
chiefly  the  impersonation  of  the  tendencies  of  the  cen- 
tury following  him.  He  says,  however,  that  there  may 
have  been  a  scribe  named  Ezra  to  whom  tradition 
attached  itself.  Wade  presents  the  traditional  view 
that  Ezra  and  his  company  came  to  Jerusalem  before 
Nehemiah. 

In  reading  concerning  this  period  of  history,  note : 
(1)  the  course  of  events  that  led  up  to  Nehemiah's  visit 
to  Jerusalem  as  governor ;  (2)  date  of  his  first  visit ; 
(3)  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  rebuilding  Jerusa- 
lem's walls  ;  (4)  Nehemiah's  conspicuous  ability  in 
overcoming  obstacles  ;  (5)  duration  of  his  stay  in  Jerusa- 
lem ;  (6)  specific  achievements  which  he  carried 
through ;  (7)  their  historical  significance  ;  (8)  argu- 
ments as  to  the  date  of  Ezra's  expedition ;  (9)  reform 
of  heathen  marriages  ;  (10)  circumstances  and  influ- 
ences that  led  to  the  establishment  of  Judaism;  (11) 
events  leading  to  the  establishment  of  the  Samaritan 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim ;  (12)  date  and  consequences 
of  its  establishment ;  (13)  prosperity  and  growth  of  the 
community  after  the  work  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  ;  (14) 
evidence  as  to  persecution  under  Artaxerxes  Ochus ; 
(15)  extent  and  influence  of  Jewish  misfortunes  at 
this  time. 


THE  PERSIAN  AGE  135 

S.    Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Malachi, 

a.  Structure  and  Thought.  Read  the  book  in  the 
following  sections  :  V'^  l«-29,  2^^^\  2i'-36,  3^-12,  S^s-is^ 
316-17^  4.  In  reading,  note :  (1)  the  subject  of  each 
section ;  (2)  Malachi's  catholicity ;  (3)  his  insistence 
on  Jehovah's  love  for  Israel ;  (4)  teaching  as  to  un- 
worthy offerings ;  (5)  teaching  as  to  divorce ;  (6) 
teaching  as  to  judgment  yet  to  come;  (7)  emj)hasis  on 
keeping  law;  (8)  prophetic  warning  before  the  great 
and  terrible  day. 

b.  Author  and  Style.  Note:  (1)  probability  that 
title  Malachi  (my  messenger)  may  have  been  suggested 
by  3^ ;  (2)  the  proi)het's  hope  in  evil  times ;  (:^))  di- 
dactic style  in  contrast  to  earlier  prophets. 

For  discussion  of  various  aspects  of  this  prophecy, 
see  references  above,  under  1,  (1),  b. 

(2)  Isaiah  63-66,  34,  35. 
See  above,  under  1,  (1),  c. 

(3)  The  Priestly  Code  and  Narratives. 

a.  Contents.  Look  over  the  contents  of  Leviticus 
1-10,  12-16,  27  with  the  aid  of  the  page  headings  in 
Rev.  Vers.  (Amcr.)  or  the  summaries  in  Driver,  "Int. 
Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  43-47,59,  noting  the  kind  of  subjects 
treated  in  these  laws. 

b.  History.  Read  two  or  more  of  the  following: 
Kent,  "  iMcssages  Lawgvrs.,"  pages  36-43,  "  Beginnings 
Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  43-47;  "Origin  and  Perm.  VaL 
0.  T.,"  pages  148-156;  "Laws  and  Tradit.  Precs.,"  Intro- 
duction, vi. ;  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  199-201 ;  Driver, 


136     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  126-159  ;  Carpenter  and  Bat- 
tersby,  "  Hexateuch,"  ch.  xiii. ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
IL,  pages  368-371 ;  McFadyen,  "  Messages  Proph.  and 
Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  239-247.  In  reading  note:  (1) 
evidence  as  to  late  date  of  priestly  codes ;  (2)  codes 
previously  considered  (see  §§  36,  37);  (3)  latest  code  ; 
(4)  incorporation  of  priestly  laws  in  narratives ;  (5) 
extent  of  priestly  document ;  (6)  characteristic  features 
of  style  of  this  document. 

(4)  Ruth. 

The  book  of  Ruth,  which  we  have  already  considered 
in  connection  with  the  period  of  the  Judges,  may  very 
possibly  have  been  written  in  the  present  period  as  a 
protest  against  the  rigid  exclusion  of  foreign  marriages. 
For  discussion  of  the  book,  see  references  under  §  25, 

1,  (1). 

(5)  Aramaic  Documents  in  Ezra  4-6. 

These  writings  have  been  considered  under  §  37,  1, 
(1),  a. 

(6)  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah.     Nehemiah  1-7^,  13. 

These  writings  have  been  considered  under  1,  (1),  a, 
of  the  present  section. 

(7)  Joel. 

a.  Structure  and  Thought.  Read  the  book  in  the 
following  sections:  1-2",  2^2-17^  £18-=^',  22832^  3i-"% 
3iGb-2i_  Note:  (1)  the  subject  of  each  section;  (2) 
consecutive  character  and  orderly  arrangement  of  the 
book ;  (3)  Joel's  first  interpretation  of  the  devastation ; 
(4)  his  views  of  the  pi-opcr  means  of  averting  the 
plague ;  (5)  his  expectation  of  an  outpouring  of   the 


THE   PERSIAN   AGE  137 

Spirit;  (G)  warning  to  be  given  before  great  and  ter- 
rible day;  (7)  future  of  tbc  nations;  (8)  future  of 
Jerusalem. 

b.  Author  and  Style.  Note  :  (1)  Joel's  familiarity 
with  prophetic  literature  (cf.  Z^^  with  Amos  1'-^ ;  3^^ 
with  Isa.  24  and  Mic.  4^ ;  22  with  Zeph.  l^^;  l^s  with 
Isa.  18^) ;  (2)  the  contrast  between  the  priestly  religion 
of  Joel  and  the  ethical  religion  of  the  eighth-century 
prophets  ;  (3)  vivid  character  of  Joel's  word  pictures. 
For  discussion  of  various  aspects  of  this  prophecy,  see 
references  under  1,  (1)  d,  and  also  pages  397-436  in 
G.  A.  Smith's  "  Bk.  of  Twelve." 

(8)  Isaiah  24-27. 

This  prophecy  has  been  considered  under  1,  (1),  c, 
where  references  to  various  discussions  were  given. 

(9)  Compilation  of  the  Hcxateuch. 

Read  two  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Kent, 
"  Beginnings  Heb.  Hist.,"  pages  47,  48  ;  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,  "  pages  56-59 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  IT.,  page  375 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
71-75. 

(10)  Book  of  Psalms  3-41. 

While  many  Psalms  may  have  been  written  in  prc- 
exilic  and  exilic  times,  it  is  probable  that  the  collection 
of  hymns  now  numbered  3-41  in  the  Psalter  was  com- 
piled in  the  post-exilic  age  and  constituted  the  temple 
hymnal  used  in  the  reformed  worship  of  Nehemiah  and 
Ezra  (see  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  page  139, 
last  paragraph).  The  gradual  growth  of  the  Psalter 
as  a  whole  will  be  considered  under  §  42, 


138     EARLY  JEWISH  HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

(11)   Job. 

a.  General  Outline.  Read  the  book,  noting  its  natural 
division  into  the  following  sections  :  (1)  Prologue,  1,  2  ; 
(2)  Curse  or  Lament,  3  ;  (3)  Debate,  4-31  (First  cycle, 
4-14,    Second    cycle,    15-21,    Third    cycle,    22-31); 

(4)  Speeches  of  Elihu,  32-37  ;  (5)  Jehovah  and  Job, 
38-426 .  ^Qy  Epilogue,  42"-i'. 

b.  Thought.  Reread  the  debate,  noting :  (1)  the 
order  of  speakers  in  each  cycle  ;  (2)  tlie  theory  of  Job's 
friends  as  to  the  cause  of  misfortunes  ;  (3)  their  appli- 
cation of  the  theory  to  Job's  situation ;  (4)  the  argu- 
ment by  which  each  of  the  three  supports  the  theory  ; 

(5)  the  influences  which  led  Job  to  question  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  held  by  his  friends  ;  (6)  the  real  object  of 
Job's  quest  through  the  long  discussion.  Review  the 
speeches  of  Elihu,  noting  whether  they  add  anything  to 
the  debate.  Reread  the  words  of  Jehovah  and  the  re- 
ply of  Job,  noting:  (1)  the  attributes  of  the  divine 
nature  manifested  to  Job ;  (2)  the  ground  of  Job's  final 
satisfaction.  Notice  in  the  Epilogue  the  writer's  esti- 
mate of  the  attitude  of  the  three  friends  and  of  Job. 
How  many  solutions  of  the  problem  of  suffering  does 
the  whole  book  suggest  ? 

c.  Reference  Literature.  For  discussion  of  the  lit- 
erary form,  history,  and  interpretation  of  the  book  of 
Job,  consult :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
123-134;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  408-435; 
McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  264-281  ;  Hastings, 
"Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "Job";  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Job"; 
Kent,  "  Orig.  and  Perm.  Yal.  O.  T.,"  pages  179-185 ; 
A.  B.  Davidson, "  Job,"  in  "  Camb.  Bib."  ;  Cheyne, "  Job 
and  Solomon"  ;  Genung,  "  Epic  of  the  Inner  Life." 


THE  PERSIAN   AGE  139 

4.    Significance  of  the  Period. 

Consider:  (1)  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  as  types  of  tlie 
Jew  of  that  day  in  his  possible  dignity  and  inllucnce, 
his  devotion  to  his  religious  beliefs,  his  adaptability ; 
(2)  the  triumph  of  the  infltiences  which  Ezekiel  had  set 
in  motion,  when  Judaism  was  established;  (3)  tlie 
drawback  and  values  in  Judaism;  (4)  the  kind  of  a 
Messiah  which  it  naturally  looked  for  ;  (5)  the  growing 
importance  and  rapidly  increasing  extent  of  the  Juda- 
ism outside  of  Palestine  ;  (6)  the  effect  upon  Judaism 
of  Persian  influence. 


VIII 

THE  GREEK   AGE    (332-168  b.  c.) 

§  39.  Period  of  Alexander  and  of  the  Struggle 
OF  HIS  Successors  (332-198). 

1.    Sources. 
(1)    Biblical. 

The  Old  Testament  offers  no  connected  narrative  of 
this  age,  and  the  literature  of  the  age  gives  but  little  of 
definite  allusion  to  contemporary  events.  It  does,  how- 
ever, reveal  much  of  the  spirit  and  atmosphere  of  the 
times. 

a.  Compilation  of  Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah.  Read 
two  or  more  of  the  following  references :  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  255,  "  Isr's.  Hist,  and  Biog.  Xars.," 
page  22,  "  Origin  and  Perm.  Yal.  O.  T.,"  pages  156- 
160  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  108- 
109  ;  Driver,  « Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  page  518  ;  McFadjen, 
"Int.  O.  T.,"  pages  339,  317,  348;  "Messages  Proph. 
and  Priest.  Histns.,"  pages  270,  271 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  I.,  page  392,  col.  a  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  I,  col.  764, 
noting :  (1)  indications  of  the  date  of  compilation  ; 
(2)  the  reasons  which  would  have  impelled  a  priest  to 
undertake  so  huge  a  task. 

b.  Zechariah  9-14.  Read  the  chapters  in  connection 
with  Kent,  "  Hist,  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  256,  noting : 
(1)  allusions  which  seem  to  place  them  within  the 
present  period ;  (2)  the  spirit  of  the  prophecies.     For 


THE   GREEK  AGE  141 

further  discussion  of  date  and  circumstances,  see : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  259-261 ; 
Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  O.T.,"  pages  346-355;  McPadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  227-233 ;  G.  A.  Smith,  "  Bk.  of 
Twelve,"  II.,  in  "Expos.  Bib.,"  pages  449-462. 

c.  Jonah.  Read  the  book  in  connection  with  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  105,  noting :  (1)  indications  of 
late  date ;  (2)  author's  protest  against  narrow  Judaism. 
For  further  discussion  of  the  date  and  spirit  of  the 
book,  see :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
244-246  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  O.  T.,"  pages  321-325 ; 
McFadyen,  "Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  196-199  ;  Sanders  and 
Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs.,"  pages  339-348. 

d.  Ecclesiastes.  Read  the  book  in  connection  with 
Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  258,  298,  noting: 
(1)  indications  of  late  date ;  (2)  influence  of  Greek 
philosophy  on  the  original  writer ;  (3)  absence  of  strong 
faith  and  enthusiasm ;  (4)  social  and  political  condi- 
tions revealed.  For  further  discussion  of  the  date  and 
spirit  of  the  book,  consult :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  160-164  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages 
470-477  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  298-303,  309. 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "Ecclesiastes,"  §§2,  4; 
"Enc.  Bib.,"  Art.  "Ecclesiastes,"  §  2,11-13  ;  Pluraptre, 
"Ecclesiastes,"  "  Camb.  Bib.,"  pages  19-34. 

(2)  Jewish  and  Greek  Writers.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  264. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  two  of  the  following :  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jew- 
ish Peop.,"  pages  284-295,  299-305;  H.  P.  Smith, 
«  0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  411-427  ;  Guthc,  in  "  Enc.  Bib." 
III.,  cols.  2259-2261.     In  reading,  try  to  secure  a  clear 


142     EARLY  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

impression  of:  (1)  the  government  and  struggle  for 
control  of  Palestine  in  the  years  b.  c.  332-323,  323- 
301,  301-218,  218-198  ;  (2)  immediate  effects  of  Alex- 
ander's conquest  and  rule  ;  (3)  attitude  of  the  Ptolemies 
toward  the  Jews  ;  (1)  the  Judaism  of  Egypt  in  contrast 
to  that  of  Palestine ;  (5)  literary  activity  of  the 
Egyptian  Jews. 

3.   Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. 

References  to  discussions  of  the  general  characteris- 
tics of  this  writing  were  given  under  §  28,  1  (2), 

(2)  Zechariah  9-14. 

Read  the  chapters,  noting:  (1)  symbolic  imagery 
(cf.  Ezekiel) ;  (2)  picture  of  the  nations  gathering  to- 
gether against  Jerusalem  and  overthrown ;  (3)  expec- 
tation of  a  king  coming  in  meekness.  For  aid  in 
interpreting,  see  references  under  1,  (1),  b,  and  G.  A. 
Smitli,  "  Bk.  of  Twelve,"  II.,  pages  463-490  ;  Sanders 
and  Kent,  "  Messages  Later  Prophs.,"  pages  326-336. 

(3)  Jonah, 

For  discussion  of  the  literary  form  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  book,  read  two  or  more  of  the  following : 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  page  246 ;  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  324,  325 ;  McFadyen,  "  Int. 
0.  T.,"  pages  196-199  ;  Sanders  and  Kent,  "  Messages 
Later  Prophs.,"  pages  341-354 ;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as 
Statesmen  and  Preachers,"  pages  134-137;  Cornill, 
"Prophs.  of  Isr.,"  pages  170-173. 

(4)  Proverbs. 

a.  Structure.  Note  the  composition  of  the  book  as 
indicated  by  the  differences  between  the  sections,  1-9, 
10-2216,  22i"-2422,  2423  »i,  25-29,  30,  31i-9,  2>V^-^\ 


THE   GllEEK  AGE  143 

b.  Thought.  (1)  Read  chs.  1-9,  noting  the  kinds 
of  sin  to  which  the  hearers  seem  especially  tempted ; 
{■2}  the  general  character  of  the  original  collection  of 
Proverbs,  10-221*^,  was  considered  under  §  34  ;  (3)  glance 
through  the  section  22i'-2422,  noting  the  very  practical 
and  homely  questions  treated  ;  (4)  note  the  appendix 
to  the  previous  section  in  24:^^'^,  observing  especially 
the  apologue  on  the  slothful  man,  vv.  30-34 ;  (5)  note 
the  character  of  subjects  treated  in  25-29,  an  appendix 
to  the  original  collection,  observing  especially  the  little 
poem  on  industry,  2"!^^'^' ;  (6)  in  ch.  30,  notice  the 
title  and  the  numerical  form  of  the  proverbs  (cf.  Amos, 
introductory  address)  ;  (7)  in  31^"^,  notice  the  title 
and  the  homely  character  of  the  maxims ;  (8)  read 
3110-31^  in  the  Hebrew  an  alphabetical  poem  (see  §  35, 
3,  (3)). 

c.  Date.  Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  discus- 
sions :  Toy,  "  Proverbs,"  in  "  Internat.  Crit.  Com.," 
pages  xix-xxxi,  ''  Enc.  Bib.,"  III.,  cols.  3911-3918  ; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  152-157; 
Driver, "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  404-407;  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  O.  T.,"  pages  259-261 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
IV.,  pages  141-143. 

A  popular  discussion  of  the  Hebrew  sages  and  their 
proverbs  will  be  found  in  Kent,  "  Orig.  and  Perm.  Val. 
of  0.  T.,"  pages  163-175. 

(5)    Song  of  Songs. 

a.  Literary  Form  and  Quality.  Road  the  poem  in 
connection  with  one  of  the  following  discussions: 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  168-170 ; 
McFadyen,  "Int.  ().  T.,"  pages  282-287;  Driver,  "int. 
Lit.  0.  T.;'  pages  436-448,  452.  453  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 


144      EARLY   JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Bib.,"  art.  "  Song  of  Songs,"  §  ii.;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  T.,  cols. 
684-691 ;  A.  Harper,  "  Song  of  Solomon,"  in  "  Camb. 
Bib.,"  pages  xi-xxiii,  xxxi-li.  (1)  Consider  whether 
the  book  is  a  drama  with  three  princij)al  characters 
(so  Driver),  a  dramatic  lyric  (so  Rothstein  in  Hastings 
and  Harper  in  "  Camb.  Bib."),  or  a  collection  of  wed- 
ding songs  (so  Bennett  and  Adeney,  McFadyen,  Cheyne 
in  Enc.  Bib.).  (2)  Note  the  delight  in  the  beauties  of 
nature  revealed  in  the  poem.  (3)  Select  the  most  ele- 
vated expressions  of  human  love  in  the  book. 

b.  Date  and  Author.  Read  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing: Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  167, 
168  ;  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T. ,"  pages  287-289  ;  Driver, 
"Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  448-450;  Hastings,  "Diet. 
Bib.,"  art.  "Song  of  Songs,"  §  iii. ;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I., 
cols.  92-94;  A.  Harper,  "Song  of  Sol.,"  in  "Camb. 
Bib.,"  pages  xxi-xxxi. 

(6)    Ecclesiastes. 

Form  and  Thought.  Read  the  book  in  connection 
with  one  of  the  following  discussions  of  its  contents  and 
character:  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
164-167;  Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  466-473; 
McFadyen,  "Int.  0.  T.,"  pages  303-309;  Hastings, "Diet. 
Bib.,"  I.,  pages  639-642  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Ecclesi- 
astes "  ;  Haupt,  "  Bk.  of  Eccl.,"  pages  1-9  ;  Plumptre, 
"  Eccl.,"  in  "  Camb.  Bib.,"  pages  35-101 ;  Cox,  "  Eccl.," 
in  "  Expos.  Bib.,"  pages  3-32.  In  reading,  note : 
(1)  whether  the  book  presents  a  consistent  and  orderly 
discussion ;  (2)  parts  probably  due  to  later  editing  ;  (3) 
conception  of  writer  as  to  a  future  life ;  (4)  general  tone 
of  what  was  probably  the  original  book ;  (5)  tone  and 
purpose  of  the  later  elements.     For  an  effort  to  inter- 


THE   GREEK   AGE  145 

pret  the  book  as  a  literary  unit}-,  see  Geuung,  "  Tlic 
Words  of  Kolielcth."  For  a  critical  reconstruction  and 
metrical  translation  of  the  text,  see  Ilaupt,  "  Bk.  of 
Ecclesiastes." 

4.    Significance  of  the  Age. 

Consider:  (1)  the  deadening  effect  npon  Israel  of 
control  for  a  half-century  preceding  Alexander  by  a 
fading  dynasty  and  a  passing  civilization ;  (2)  the 
stirring  personality  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  (3)  the 
remarkable  success  of  Hellenism  in  moulding  tlie  civ- 
ilizations, literatures,  and  religions  that  it  touched  ;  (4) 
the  serious  danger  which  through  Hellenism's  insidious 
influence  surrounded  Judaism. 

§  40.  Period  of  Seleucid  Rule  (198-168  b,  c). 
1.    Sources. 

(1)   Biblical. 

Esther.  Read  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop,,"  §  57  or 
"  Isr's.  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages  39,  40,  noting : 

(1)  grounds  for   dating  this  book  in  the  Greek  age; 

(2)  the  intense  nationalistic  spirit  revealed.  For 
further  discussion  of  date  and  spirit  of  the  book,  see : 
"  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  484-487;  McFadyen, 
"  Int.  0.  T.,  "  pages  310-315  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
art.  "  Esther,  Bk.,"  §  iii. ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Esther," 
§§  4,  5.  Of  the  above,  McFadyen  dates  the  book  in 
the  Maccabean  age  and  Niildeke,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  leaves 
the  question  whether  it  should  be  assigned  to  the  Greek 
or  Maccabean  age  an  open  one.  The  others  assign  it 
to  the  present  period. 


10 


146      EARLY  JEWISH  HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

(2)    Old  Testament  Apocrypha. 

We  have  now  reached  a  time  when  nearly  all  the 
books  which  were  ultimately  included  in  the  Palestinian 
canon  were  already  written,  although  the  limits  of  the 
collection  were  not  fixed  as  yet.  Indeed,  they  were 
not  fully  determined  until  about  100  a.  d.  The  trans- 
lation of  Jewish  literature  into  Greek  had  already 
begun,  in  Alexandria,  and  there  was  growing  up 
among  the  Egyptian  Jews  a  collection  of  writings 
rather  more  inclusive  than  that  which  was  taking 
shape  in  Judea.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  Septu- 
agint,  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Bible,  contained  a 
number  of  books  which  the  Palestinian  rabbis  excluded 
from  their  sacred  collection.  These  additional  books 
are  styled  among  Euglish-speaking  Protestants  the 
Old  Testament  Apocrypha.  For  further  discussion  of 
this  group  of  books,  see  :  Hastings,  "  Diet,  Bib.,"  art. 
"Apocrypha;  "  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Apocrypha,"  §§3-8. 

a.  Ecclesiasticus,  or  The  Wisdom  of  Ben  Sirach. 
Read  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§259,  288-291, 
291-296,  noting:  (1)  date  of  Ecclus. ;  (2)  the  way  in 
which  the  book  throws  direct  light  upon  the  social  and 
moral  conditions  of  the  times.  Further  discussion  of 
the  date  and  history  of  the  book  is  given  in  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.,  art.  "  Sirach,  Bk.  of,"  §§  i.-iv. ; 
"Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Ecclus.,"  §§  7-9. 

b.  First  Maccabees  1,  Second  Maccabees  3-7.  In 
connection  with  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  263,  or 
Schlirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,"  Div. 
I.,  Vol.  I.,  §  3,  a,  read  from  "0.  T.  Apocrypha,"  (Rev. 
Vers.,  British)  the  history  of  the  years  175-168  as 
given  in  First  Mace.  1  and  Second  Mace.  3-7,  noting 


THE  GREEK  AGE  147 

carefully  the  course  of  events  that  led  up  to  the  Macca- 
beaii  revolt  in  168. 

(3)  Greek  Histories.  Read  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish 
Peop.,"  §  264  (latter  part)  and  Schlirer,  "  Jewish  Peop. 
in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I. ,  Vol.  I.,  pages  111,  112. 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  one  or  both  of  the  following :  Kent, 
«  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  295-298,  305-330 ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  "0.  T.  Hist.,"  pages  427-447.  A  valuable 
account  of  the  influence  of  Hellenism  on  Judea  is  given 
in  Mahaffv,  "  Progress  of  Hellenism  in  Alexander's 
Emp.,"  Lect.  lY.  In  reading,  note  :  (1)  how  Palestine 
became  a  part  of  the  Seleucid  empire ;  (2)  the  begin- 
ning of  serious  trouble  for  the  Jews  under  the  Seleucid 
rule ;  (3)  general  characteristics  of  Jewish  life  and 
thought  in  the  Greek  period  ;  (4)  first  effects  of  Hel- 
lenism upon  Judaism ;  (5)  the  inevitable  conflict 
between  the  two  different,  intense,  and  persistent 
civilizations  ;  (6)  steps  leading  up  to  the  great  per- 
secution under  Antiochus  Epiphanes ;  (7)  measures 
taken  completely  to  stamp  out  Judaism;  (8)  their 
immediate  effect. 

3.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

a.  Esther.  Read  the  story,  noting :  (1)  its  dramatic 
qualities ;  (2)  the  elements  which  gave  it  value. 

b.  Ecclesiasticus.  Read  from  0.  T.  Apocrypha 
(Rev.  Vers.,  Brit.)  at  least  chs.  1-6  and  a  portion  of  the 
section  in  praise  of  famous  men,  beginning  at  ch.  44. 
While  reading:  (1)  Compare  the  form  and  thought 
with  Proverbs.  (2)  Note  the  difference  in  tone  between 
Ecclus.  and  Eccles.     For  a  summary  of  the  contents 


148     EARLY   JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

and  thought  of  the  book,  see :  Hasthigs,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
art.  "  Sirach,  Bk.  of,"  §  x. ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Ecchis.," 
§§  11-24. 

c.  Enoch  1-36.  From  the  latter  years  of  the  Greek 
age  there  has  been  preserved  in  the  Ethiopic  book  of 
Enoch,  chs.  1-36,  an  apocalyptic  writing  which  was 
included  neither  in  the  Palestinian  nor  Alexandrian 
canon  of  the  Bible.  See  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.," 
§  262,  especially  last  sentence.  Read  Enoch  1-36  from 
R.  H.  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages  57-105,  in  con- 
nection with  discussion  of  date  and  thought,  pages  56, 
57.  Short  discussions  of  the  book  of  Enoch  are  given 
in  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  705-708  and  "  Jew- 
ish Enc,"  v.,  art.  "Enoch,  Bks.  of,"  §  1. 


PART  III 

LATER  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND 
LITERATURE 


IX 

MACCABEAN   AGE  (168-63  b.c) 

§  41.  Period  of  Struggle  for  Independence  (168- 
142). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)  Jewish  Historical  Narratives. 

a.  First  Maccabees  1-13.  Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jew- 
ish Peop.,"  §§  1,  2,  noting  especially  the  limits  of  the 
age.  In  connection  with  Riggs,  "Hist.  J.  P.,"  §  3,  read 
from  the  Apocrypha  (Rev.  Vers.,  Brit.)  First  Macca- 
bees 1-13,  or  read  First  and  Second  Maccabees  as 
arranged  in  Kent,  "  Isr.'s  Hist,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  pages 
387-467,  together  with  pages  35-39.  The  chapters  are 
discussed  also  in  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  263; 
Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I., 
Vol.  I.,  Intro.,  §  3  A,  Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  pages  6-9; 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "Maccabees,  Bks.  of"; 
"Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "Maccabees,  First  Bk."  While 
reading,  note  :  (1)  the  period  of  history  included  in 
First  Maccabees;  (2)  merits  of  the  book  as  a  history; 
(3)  indications  as  to  the  time  of  its  writing ;  (4)  con- 
trast with  spirit  of  Second  Maccabees. 

b.  Second  Maccabees.  In  connection  with  Riggs, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  4,  read  from  tlie  Apocrypha, 
Second  ^Maccabees,  unless  read  in  connection  with  First 
Maccabees  from  Kent,  "  His*;,  and  Biog.  Nars.,"  j)agcs 


152     LATER  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

387-467.  The  book  is  discussed  also  in  Kent,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  263;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art. 
"  Mace.,  Bks.  of  " ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Mace.,  First  Bk." 
While  reading,  note  the  principal  source  of  Second 
Maccabees ;  (2)  characteristics  of  the  writing  which 
weaken  confidence  in  its  accuracy  ;  (3)  probable  date 
of  writing;  (4)  points  at  which  it  is  of  value  as  a 
source. 

c.  Josephus.  In  connection  with  Riggs,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop,,"  §  5,  read  Josephus,  "  Jewish  War," 
Bk.  I.,  ch.  1-22,  «  Antiquities,"  Bk.  XH.,  ch.  5  — Bk. 
XIH.,  ch,  6.  While  reading,  note :  (1)  relation  of 
Josephus  to  First  Maccabees  for  period  175-135  b.  c.  ; 
(2)  other  sources  used  by  this  writer;  (3)  tendency 
in  Josephus  against  which  one  must  guard.  For  bio- 
graphical information  as  to  Josephus,  see  "  Enc.  Brit.," 
art.  "  Josephus." 

(2)   Apocalyptic  Writings, 

a.  Daniel.  In  connection  with  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jew- 
ish Peop.,"  §  6,  read  Daniel,  chs.  7-11.  For  further 
aid  in  general  interpretation  reference  may  be  made  to 
Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  260,  261,  308-310; 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  220-232; 
Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  492-497  ;  and,  for  the 
meaning  of  particular  passages,  to  Driver,  "  Daniel,"  in 
"  Camb.  Bib.,"  or  C.  M.  Cobern,  "  Ezek.  and  Daniel,"  in 
"  Whedon's  Com."  For  detailed  arguments  as  to  the 
date  of  the  book,  see  :  Bennett  and  Adeney, "  Bib.  Int.," 
pages  224-226  ;  Driver,  "  Int.  Lit,  0,  T,,"  pages  497- 
510,  "Daniel,"  "  Camb.  Bib.,"  pages  xlvii-lxxvi;  Hast- 
ings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Daniel,  Bk."  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,  "  art. 
"  Daniel,  Bk."  ;  Farrar,  "  Daniel,"  in  "  Expos.  Bib.  "  ; 


MACCABEAN  AGE  153 

Cobern,  "Ezek.  and  Daniel,"  in  "  Whedon's  Com.," 
pages  265-270.  Margoliouth, "  Lines  of  Defence  of  Bib. 
Revelation,"  pages  177-181, 304,  305,  argues  in  favor  of 
an  earlier  date.  While  reading,  note :  (1)  arguments 
as  to  date  ;  (2)  historical  interpretation  of  the  visions  ; 
(3)  purpose  of  the  visions. 

b.  Enoch  83-90.  In  connection  with  Riggs,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  7,  40,  read  Charles's  translation  of 
the  Bk.  of  Enoch,  chs.  83-90.  For  aid  in  interpreta- 
tation,  reference  may  be  made  to  Kent,  "  Hist.  Jewish 
Peop.,"  §  262 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Enoch 
(Ethiopic),  Bk.  of  "  ;  "  Jewish  Enc."  V.,  art.  "  Enoch, 
Bks.  of,"  §  i. ;  for  particular  passages,  to  notes  on  text 
in  Charles.  For  discussion  of  the  date  of  writing,  see 
also :  R.  H.  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages  221,  222 ; 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  p.  707.  Notice  especially 
how  this  section  of  Enoch  fits  into  the  history  of  the 
Maccabean  revolt  and  throws  light  upon  the  spirit  of 
the  times. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

One  who  has  mastered  the  facts  to  be  gathered  from 
an  examination  of  the  principal  sources  is  prepared  to 
read  a  history  of  the  period  and  to  form  an  independ- 
ent judgment  as  to  its  reliability  and  value. 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  narra- 
tives :  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  14-71 ;  H. 
P.  Smith^  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  oh.  XIX. ;  Schiirer,  "  Jewish 
Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  pages  169- 
177,  18G-2G2.  Other  references  arc:  Kent,  "Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  322-340  (for  events  down  to  165 
B.  c.) ;  Ewald,  "  Hist.  Isrl.,^'  V.,  pages  293-335  ;  Stanley, 
"Hist.   Jewish  Church,  Lcct.    XLYIU."  and   pari  of 


154     LATER  JEWISH  HISTORY   AND  LITERATURE 

XLIX. ;  Cornill,  "Hist.  Peop.  Isr.,"  ch.  vii. ;  Guthe, 
article  "  Israel"  in  "Enc.  Bib."  II.,  cols.  2261-2266  ;  E. 
Bevan, "  Jerusalem  under  High  Priests,"  pages  69-108. 
In  reading,  seek  to  secure  a  clear  view  of:  (1)  the 
causes  that  led  to  the  uprising  ;  (2)  the  general  course 
of  events  from  168-165,  165-162  (securing  religious 
liberty),  162-142  B.C. 

3.  Literature  of  the  Period. 
(1)    Daniel. 

a.  Contents.  Read  the  book  of  Daniel  in  the  follow- 
ing sections:  1-6,  7-12,  giving  a  title  to  each  section 
and  to  each  chapter  or  larger  division  within  the 
section. 

b.  Interpretation.  In  the  interpretation  of  the  book, 
two  great  questions  arise  which  have  occasioned  much 
difference  of  opinion.  The  first  of  these  concerns  the 
literary  character  of  the  narratives  in  chapters  1-6. 
Are  these  to  be  accepted  as  literal  biography  and  his- 
tory, or  are  they,  in  whole  or  part,  the  work  of  the 
imagination  ?  The  second  concerns  chiefly  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  dream  in  chapter  2,  and  the  visions  of 
chapters  7  and  9  (the  four  beasts  and  the  seventy 
weeks).  The  general  conclusion  of  nearly  all  Biblical 
scholars  of  to-day  is  that  these  visions  all  terminate,  so 
far  as  their  definite  outline  of  history  is  concerned, 
with  the  Greek  kingdom  and  the  rule  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  his  death  being  anticipated,  to  be  followed 
by  the  glories  of  the  Messianic  age.  Older  interpre- 
ters very  commonly  regarded  the  last  kingdom  named 
as  the  Roman,  rather  than  the  Greek.  In  regard  to  the 
former  question,  scholars  who  date  the  writing  of 
Daniel  during  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 


MACCABEAN   AGE  155 

differ  as  to  the  amount  of  actual  history  in  the  nar- 
ratives of  chapters  1-6.  All  admit,  however,  certain 
points  of  variance  between  Daniel  and  contemporary 
historical  records. 

c.  Reference  Literature.  For  the  discussion  of  ques- 
tions concerning  interpretation,  see :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  227-233 ;  Driver,  "  Int. 
Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  488-497,  510-613  ;  "  Daniel,"  "  Camb. 
Bib.,"  ix-xcviii  ;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  Daniel, 
Bk."  ;  Cobern,  "  Ezek.  and  Daniel,"  "  Whedon's  Com.," 
pages  254-297  ;  Farrar,"  Daniel,"  "  Expos.  Bib.,"  Pt.  I., 
pages  3-119;  Fowler,  "  Prophs.  as  Statesmen  and 
Preachers,"  pages  139-149.  The  view  of  the  book  of 
Daniel  formerly  prevalent  may  be  found  in  such  works 
as  E.  P.  Pusey's  "  Commentary  on  Daniel"  and  Stuart's 
"  Commentary  on  Daniel." 

(2)   Enoch  83-90. 

a.  Contents.  Read  the  two  visions  chs.  83-84,  and 
85-90  from  R.  H.  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages 
223-259. 

b.  Interpretation.  Read  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing references :  Charles, "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages  222,  223 ; 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  L,  page  707  ;  Riggs,  "Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  40;  Kent,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.," 
§  311.  For  interpretation  of  details,  see  notes  accom- 
panying text  in  Charles's  translation.  ]\Iake  a  sum- 
mary of  the  principal  elements  in  the  cschatological 
picture  in  90^4-42  (•^jth  the  aid  of  the  notes  on  the  pas- 
sage) and  compare  with  Dan.  12. 

4.    Siynijicance  of  the  Period. 

The  JMaccabean  revolt  had  important  consequences. 
Not  alone  was   indepcndcucc  achieved,  l)ut  a  religious 


156     LATER  JEWISH   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

renaissance  took  place.  Notice  :  (1)  the  noble  personal 
types  represented  by  the  principal  Jewish  actors  ;  (2) 
the  definitely  religious  motives  for  the  revolt ;  (3)  the 
remarkable  sacrifices  cheerfully  borne  by  all ;  (4)  the 
re-emphasis  upon  religious  life. 

§  42.   Period  of  Independence  (142-63  b.  c). 

1.  Sources. 

(1)  Jewish  Historical  Narratives. 

a.  First  Maccabees  14-16.  In  connection  with 
Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  3,  read  First  Mace. 
14-16.  The  chapters  are  discussed  also  in  Kent, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  263  ;  Schiirer, "  Jewish  Peop.  in 
Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  Intro.,  §  3,  A,  Div.  II., 
Vol.  III.,  pages  6-9  ;  Hastings,  "  Dict.Bib.,"  art.  "  Mace, 
Bks.  of  ;  "  "  Enc.  Bib."  art.  "  Mace,  First  Bk." 

b.  Josephus.  In  connection  with  Biggs,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §5,  read  Josephus,  "Jewish  War,"  Bk.  I., 
chs.  22-7  ;  "  Antiquities,"  Bk.  XIII.,  ch.  7-Bk.  XIV., 
ch.  4,  Josephus  as  a  source  for  the  period  is  also  dis- 
cussed in  Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ," 
Intro.,  §  3,  C. 

(2)  Greek  Historians. 

Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  2  ;  Schiirer, 
"  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I., 
Intro.,  §  3,  B.D.E. 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History, 

Read  critically  at  least  one  of  the  following  refer- 
ences :  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  87-136  ;  H. 
P.  Smith,  "  0.  T.  Hist.,"  ch.  xx.  to  page  493 ;  Schiirer, 


MACCABEAN  AGE  157 

"  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  pages 
176-185,  263-325.  Other  references  for  the  history 
of  the  period  are  :  "  Ewald,  Hist.  Isr,,"  V.,  pages  335- 
401 ;  Stanley,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Church,"  Lect.  XLIX.  and 
part  of  L. ;  Cornill,  "  Hist.  Peop.  Isr.,"  pages  207-225  ; 
E.  Bevan,  "  Jerus.  under  High  Priests,"  pages  100-138. 
In  reading,  seek  to  secure  :  (1)  a  general  outline  of  the 
Maccabcan  rule  after  145  b.  c.  ;  (2)  a  clear  impression 
of  the  rise  of  parties  and  of  their  distinctive  tenets  ; 
(3)  a  grasp  of  the  causes  of  the  Maccabcan  downfall. 

3.    Literature  of  the  Period. 
(1)    Completion  of  the  Psalter. 

a.  Gradual  Growth.  Note:  (1)  the  division  of  the 
Psalter  into  books  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  represented  in 
the  Revised  Version ;  (2)  smaller  collections  within 
the  books,  indicated  by  the  titles ;  (3)  principal  reasons 
for  regarding  the  Psalter  as  a  gradual  growth  and  for 
holding  that  Pss.  44,  74,  79,  83,  and,  perhaps,  others 
were  written  as  late  as  the  Maccabcan  age. 

For  general  discussion  of  the  gradual  growth  of  the 
Psalter,  consult  at  least  one  of  the  following :  Driver, 
"  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  371-380  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  137-142  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
IV.,  pages  146-149  ;  Kent,  "  Orig.  and  Perm.  Val.  of 
O.T.,"  pages  191-202  ;  McFadyen,"  Int.  0.  T.,"  ])ages 
242-254,  "Messages  Psalmists,"  pages  16-30;  Kirk- 
patrick,  "  Psalms,"  pages  liii-lix. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  question  of  Maccabcan  psalms, 
read  one  or  more  of  the  following  zcfercnces :  Bennett 
and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  145,  146 ;  Schiirer, 
"  Jewi.sh  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  H.,  Vol.  HI., 
pages    15-17;    "  Enc.   Bib.,"    HI.,    cols.    3037,    3038; 


158     LATER  JEWISPI   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Driver,  "Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  387,  388;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.  page  152,  col.  b  ;  Perowne,  "  Pss.," 
I.,  pages  18,  19,  and  special  inti'oductions  to  Pss.  44, 
74,  79  ;  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Pcop.,"  App.  Y.  Of  the 
above,  the  first  tlii-ec  argue  in  favor  of  Maccabean 
psalms,  the  next  three  consider  them  very  possible, 
while  Kiggs  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  psalms 
come  from  so  late  a  time. 

b.  The  Completed  Psalter  as  Israel's  Hymn  Book. 
Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  discussions  of  the 
Psalter  as  a  whole :  McFadyen,  "  Int.  0.  T.,"  pages 
238-241,254,255,  "Messages  Psalmists,"  pages  3-8; 
Driver,  "  Int.  Lit.  0.  T.,"  pages  368,  369;  Kirkpatrick, 
"  Psalms,"  pages  ix-xiii ;  Kent,  "  Orig.  and  Perm.  Val. 
0.  T.,"  pages  191,  201,  202. 

(2)  Judith. 

a.  Contents.  Read  from  the  Apocrypha  the  book 
of  Judith. 

b.  Character,  Date,  Purpose.  On  these  topics,  read 
one  of  the  following  references :  Schiirer,  "  Jewish 
Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  IIL,  pages  32- 
35  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  II.,  cols.  2644,  2645  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  IL,  pages  823,  824. 

(3)  Tobit. 

a.  Contents.  Read  from  the  Apocrypha  the  book 
of  Tobit. 

b.  Character,  Date,  Purpose.  On  these  topics  read 
one  of  the  following  references:  Schiirer,  "Jewish 
Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  IL,  Vol.  III.,  pages  37- 
41;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.,  page  788;  "Enc. 
Bib.,"  IV.,  cols.  5110-5128. 


MACCABEAN  AGE  159 

(4)  Enoch  91-104  (except  91",  93"-i^  962). 

a.  Contents.  Read  the  chapters  from  Charles,  "  Bk. 
of  Enoch,"  pages  265-300. 

b.  Date  and  Author.  For  discussion  of  these  topics, 
see:  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages  263,  261;  Hast- 
mgs,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  L,  page  707,  col.  b  ;  "  Enc.  Bib,"  1., 
col.  223. 

c.  Interpretation.  For  aid  in  interpreting  the  section, 
consult  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  pages  262,  263,  264, 
265;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  707,  col.  b; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  223,  224,  with  notes  accompany- 
ins:  the  text  in  Charles's  edition  for  details. 

(5)  Enoch  37-70  (except  39^'  2a,  41^  \  43,  44,  50, 
54"-552,  565-573%  59,  60,  65-692'')- 

a.  Contents.    Read  the  chapters  from  Chailes,  "  Bk. 
of  Enoch,"  pages  110-182. 

b.  Date.  For  discussion  of  the  date  of  this  section 
of  Enoch  consult  one  or  more  of  the  following  :  Riggs, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  7  ;  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enocli," 
pages  107,  108  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  page  707, 
col.  b;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  col.  224;  "Jewish  Enc,"  V., 
page  181,  col.  b. 

c.  Interpretation.  For  aid  in  interpreting  this  sec- 
tion of  Enoch,  consult  Charles,  "  Bk.  of  Enoch,"  i)agcs 
106,  107,  108,  109 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages 
707,  708;  Schiircr,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ," 
Div.  XL,  Vol.  in.,  pages  66-69;  "Enc.  Bib./'  I.,  cols. 
224, 225,  with  notes  accompanying  the  text  in  Charles's 
edition  for  details. 

For  the  influence  of  Enoch  on  the  New  Testament, 
see  Hastings,  I.,  page  708,  col.  b. 


160     LATER  JEWISH  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

(6)    Literature  of  Judaism  in  Egypt. 
For  historical  background,  read  Riggs, "  Hist.  Jewish 
Peop.,"  §§  72-81. 

a.  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

(a)  Contents.  Read  from  the  Apocrypha  the  Wis- 
dom of  Solomon,  in  the  following  sections:  1-5,  6-9, 
10-19,  (13-15),  giving  a  title  to  each  section. 

(?))  Date.  For  discussion  of  the  date  of  the  book 
consult  one  or  more  of  the  following :  Riggs,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  9  ;  Schiirer,  "Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of 
Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  page  234  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  IV.,  pages  980,  931 ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  cols.  5345, 
5347. 

(e)  Thought.  Note  the  writer's  conception  of: 
(1)  wisdom,  both  human  and  diviue  ;  (2)  the  future 
life ;  (3)  nature  of  God.  The  thought  of  the  book  is 
considered  in  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  82-86 ; 
Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II., 
Vol.  III.,  pages  230-234;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  IV., 
pages  928-930  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  cols  5339-5347. 

b.  Book  in.  of  Jewish  Sibylline  Oracles. 

Read  :  Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ," 
Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  pages  270-282;  Riggs,  "Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  10,  87,  88,  noting:  (1)  general 
facts  as  to  Sibylline  oracles  and  as  to  the  Jewish  Sibyl- 
line oracles  ;  (2)  the  date  of  Book  III. ;  (3)  its  place 
of  writing  ;  (4)   its  substance. 

4.    Significance  of  the  Age. 

From  the  standpoint  of  permanent  religion  this 
period  is  surpassed  by  no  other  in  importance.  Note  : 
(1)   its  share  in  the  completion  of  the  Old  Testament ; 


MACCABEAN  AGE  161 

(2)  its  drawing  of  clear-cut  lines  in  religious  faith  and 
practice ;  (3)  the  appearance  of  the  Sanhedrim  as 
a  ruling  body ;  (4)  the  recognition  of  the  official  im- 
portance of  the  scribes  ;  (5)  the  gradual  development 
of  the  organized  religious  life  of  the  first  Christian 
century. 


11 


X 

THE   ROMAN   AGE    (63  B.  C.-135  A.  D.) 

§  43.  Period  of  the  Last  Hasmoneans  and  op 
Herod  I.     (63—4  b.  c). 

1.  Sources. 

(1)  Jewish  Historical  Narratives. 

In  connection  with  Riggs,  "  Hist,  Jewish  Peop.," 
§§  148,  149  (to  bottom  page  144),  read  Josephus, 
"  Jewish  War,"  Bk.  1.,  chs.  8-33  ;  "  Antiquities,"  Bk. 
XIV.,  ch.  5  to  Bk.  XYII.,  ch.  8.  For  the  sources  of 
Josephus's  record  of  this  period  compare  with  Riggs, 
§  149,  Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ," 
biv.  I,  Vol.  II.,  pages  58-62,  112.  While  reading, 
note :  (1)  the  coloi-ing  given  to  the  histories  of  Jose- 
phus by  his  purpose  in  writing ;  (2)  variation  in  fulness 
of  detail  in  different  parts  of  his  narrative  ;  (3)]  his 
sources  for  the  different  portions  of  the  period. 

(2)  Greek  and  Roman  Histories  and  Biographies. 
See:  Riggs,  "Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  154;  Schiirer, 

"Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I., 
pages  112-117.  Note  the  way  in  which  these  writings 
throw  light  upon  the  Jewish  history  of  the  period. 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  critically  one  or  more  of  the  following :  Riggs, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  147  and  pages  154-214  ;  Schii- 
rer, "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I., 


THE   ROMAN   AGE  1C3 

pages  328-351,  371-467.  Other  references  for  the 
history  of  the  period  are:  Matthews,  "Hist.  N.  T. 
Times  in  Pal.,"  pages  95-129;  Ewald,  "  Hist.  Isr.,"  Y., 
pages  401-449 ;  Stanley,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Church,"  Lect. 
L.;  Cornill,  "Hist.  Peop.  Isr.,"  pages  225-237  ;  Guthe, 
"  Israel,"  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  H.,  cols.  2270-2274.  In  read- 
ing, aim  to  secure  a  clear  impression  of:  (1)  the  relation 
of  the  Jewish  to  the  Roman  history  of  the  times  ;  (2) 
steps  by  which  Antipater  and  Herod  advanced  in  power ; 

(3)  strong  and  weak  elements  in  Herod's  rule. 

3.    Literature  of  the  Period. 
(1)  Psalms  of  Solomon. 

a.  Contents.  Read  the  psalms  from  Ryle  and  James, 
"  Ps.  of  Sol.,"  pages  3-151,  noting  the  theme  of  each. 

b.  Date  and  Author.  For  discussion  on  these  points, 
consult  one  or  more  of  the  following  :  Riggs,  "  Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  156  ;  Ryle  and  James,  "  Ps.  of  Sol.," 
pages  xxvii-xliv,  Iviii-lxii ;  Schlirer,  "Jewish  Peop.  in 
Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  pages  18-21 ;  Hast- 
ings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.  pages  162,  163  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.," 
L,  col.  243  ;  "  Jewish  Enc,"  X.,  page  250. 

c.  Thought.  Reread  the  psalms,  noting  :  (1)  inter- 
pretation given  of  Pompey's  conquest ;  (2)  persons  upon 
whom  judgment  is  expected;  (3)  hope  of  immortality; 

(4)  Messianic  hope.  Reference  may  be  made  to :  Riggs, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  156  ;  Ryle  and  James,  "  Ps.  of 
Sol.,"  pages  xliv-lviii ;  Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time 
of  Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  HI.,  pages  21,  22  ;  Hastings, 
"Diet.  liib.,"  IV.,  page  163  ;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  243- 
245;  "Jewish  Enc,"  X.,  pages  250,  251. 


164     LATER  JEWISH  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

4.    Significayicc  of  the  Period. 

Consider :  (1)  the  good  results  that  always  followed 
for  a  land  which  fell  under  the  domination  of  Rome; 
(2)  the  attitude  of  the  Jewish  loyalists  toward  Rome, 
whatever  her  policy ;  (3)  the  purely  pagan,  though 
splendid  ideals  of  Herod  ;  (4)  his  attitude  toward  for- 
mal religion  in  Judea ;  (5)  his  promotion  of  the  inter- 
national interests  of  his  country ;  (6)  how  did  he 
promote  the  era  of  the  Christ? 

§  44.  Period  of  the  House  of  Herod  and  the 
Roman  Governors  (4  b.  c.-70  a,  d.). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)  Jewish  Historical  Narratives. 

In  connection  with  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.," 
§§  148,  149  (latter  half),  read  Josephus,  "  Antiquities," 
Bk.  XVH.,  ch.  9  to  Bk.  XX.,  ch.  11 ;  "  Jewish  War," 
Bks.  H-VIL 

(2)  Jewish  Literature  of  the  Period. 

Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  157,  158,  not- 
ing the  different  trends  of  thought  and  feeling  evidenced 
in  the  literature  of  the  times. 

(3)  New  Testament  Writings. 

Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  150,  noting  the 
inter-relation  of  the  New  Testament  and  Jewish  writ- 
ings as  sources  for  the  history  of  the  period. 

(4)  Rabbinical  Literature. 

Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §§  151-153,  not- 
ing :  (1)  the  technical  names,  general  character,  and 
date  of  each  class  of  rabbinical  writings ;  (2)  the  light 
they  throw  upon  the  history  of  this  period. 


THE  KOMAN  AGE  165 

(5)  Greek  and  Latin  Histories  and  Biographies. 

Read  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,''  §  154,  or  Schiirer, 
"Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  pages 
112-117. 

2.  General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references :  Riggs, 
"  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  pages  232-277  ;  Schiirer,  "  Jew- 
ish Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  pages  351- 
370,  Vol.  IT.,  pages  1-256.  Other  references  for  the 
history  of  the  period  are :  Matthews,  "  Hist.  N.  T. 
Times'  in  Pal.,"  pages  130-158 ;  Ewald,  "  Hist.  Isr.," 
v.,  pages  449-457,  Vl.,  pages  1-94,  VH.,  pages  235- 
275,  402-426,  486-616;  Cornill,  "Hist.  Peop.  Isr.," 
pages  238-301;  Guthe,  "  Israel,"  in  "Enc.  Bib.,"  II., 
cols.  2274-2285.  In  reading  concerning  this  period, 
aim  to  secure  a  clear  impression  of :  (1)  the  division  of 
Herod's  Kingdom  and  of  the  political  history  of  each 
part  through  the  reign  of  Agrippa  I.  (For  graphic  rep- 
resentation of  the  division,  see  map,  Plate  VI.);  (2) 
circumstances  that  led  to  the  outbreak  of  the  great  re- 
bellion ;  (3)  principal  steps  in  the  progress  of  the  war ; 
(4)  the  concluding  calamity. 

3.  Literature  of  the  Period. 

(1)  Assumption  of  Moses. 

a.  Contents.  Read  the  translation  from  Charles, 
"  Assumption  of  Moses,"  pages  3-51. 

b.  Date  and  Author.  For  discussion  of  these  topics, 
consult  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  157  ;  Charles, 
"  Assumption  of  Moses,"  pages  li-lviii  (xxi-xxviii)  ; 
Schiirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II., 
Vol.  HI.,  pages  78-80. 


166     LATER  JEWISH   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

c.  Thought.  Note  the  writer's  attitude  toward : 
(1)  the  spirit  of  unrest  among  his  people ;  (2)  the  Mes- 
sianic hope.  Eeference  may  be  made  to  Riggs,  "Hist. 
Jewish  Peop.,"  §  157 ;  Charles,  "  Assumption  of 
Moses,"  pages  Iviii-lxi ;  Schlirer,  "  Jewish  Peop.  in 
Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  pages  74-78. 

(2)  Book  of  Jubilees, 

Read  at  least  two  of  the  following  references  :  Riggs, 
"Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  158  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
II.,  page  791 ;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  230-233  ;  Schlirer, 
"  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  IL,  Vol.  HI., 
pages  134-139.  While  reading,  notice  :  (1)  the  nature 
of  the  work  ;  (2)  point  of  view  and  aim  of  the  author ; 
(3)  illustrations  of  haggadic  comment ;  (4)  value  to 
student  of  later  Judaism. 

(3)  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  chs.  27-301,  36-40,  53-74. 
See  Charles,  "  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,"  pages  liii-lix, 

48-56,  61-66,  86-116.  The  material  is  discussed  also 
in  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  249-251;  "Enc. 
Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  215-220;  Schlirer,  "Jewish  Peop.  in 
Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  III.,  pages  83-91. 

(4)  Alexandrian  Jewish  Literature. 

The  limits  of  the  course  permit  only  a  glance  at  this 
group  of  writings. 

a.   Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch. 

Read  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  707-711,  or 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  225-228,  noting  :  (1)  the  place  of 
writing  and  date  of  the  book  ;  (2)  its  relation  to  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  literature ;  (3)  light  that  it  throws 
upon  contemporary  and  subsequent  thought,  especially 
upon  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  the  millennium  and  the 
conception  of  the  seven  heavens. 


THE   ROMAN  AGE  167 

b.    Writings  of  Philo. 

See  Riggs,  "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.,"  §  327 ;  Hastings, 
"Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext.  Vol.,  pages  197-208;  Schiircr, 
"  Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div.  IL,  Vol.  III., 
pages  322-381 ;  "  Enc.  Brit.,"  XVIH.,  pages  759-764. 
In  reading,  note  :  (1)  general  facts  of  Philo's  life  ;  (2) 
combination  of  Jewish  and  Hellenic  thought  seen  in 
his  writings;  (3)  his  extravagant  allegorizing  of  the 
Scriptures. 

4.    Slijnificanee  of  the  Period. 

Note :  (1)  the  impossibility  of  long  continued  peace, 
considering  such  widely  separated  factors  in  the  nation 
as  Pbarisees,  decrying  any  human  means  of  establisbing 
Israel's  independence  and  supremacy,  Sadducees,  ready 
for  anv  arrangement  which  would  leave  them  undis- 
turbed,  procurators,  who  despised  the  people  they  were 
set  to  rule,  zealots,  continually  demanding  a  struggle, 
and  the  people,  who  hardly  knew  their  real  minds  ; 
(2)  the  remarkable  endurance  of  their  wrongs  by  the 
people ;  (3)  the  series  of  unfit  procurators  ;  (4)  the 
bitterness  of  the  struggle  at  the  capital. 

That  the  downfall  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the 
temple,  and  the  great  council,  did  not  wreck  Judaism  is 
one  of  the  marvels  of  history. 

§  45.  Period  from  the  Close  op  the  Jewish  War 
TO  THE  Overthrow  of  Bar-Cochba  (70  or  73-135  a.  d.) 

1.    Sources. 

With  the  close  of  the  "  Jewish  War  "  of  Josejihus, 
Jewish  historical  narratives,  for  the  time,  cease,  making 
it  quite  impossible  to  frame  a  connected  account  of  this 
period  of  Jewish  history.     Glimpses  of  the  history  may 


168        LATEJl  JEWISH  HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

be  gained  from  classical  and  Christian  writers,  and  a 
little  testimony  may  be  gotten  from  coins.  Contem- 
porary Jewish  literature  and  traditions  preserved  in  the 
later  rabbinical  writings  give  some  picture  of  the  inner 
life  of  the  Jews  who  remained  in  Palestine.  An  atten- 
tive reading  of  Schurer's  narrative  will  reveal  the 
careful  use  of  all  these  sources. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Eead  Schiirer,  "Jewish  Peop.  in  Time  of  Christ,"  Div. 
I.,Vol.  II.,  pages  257-321.  Riggs, "  Hist.  Jewish  Peop.," 
§§  818-323,  gives  a  very  brief  account  of  the  period. 
Other  references  are  Ewald,  "  Hist.  Isr.,"  VIII.,  pages 
1-98,  259-311 ;  Graetz, "  Hist.  Jews,"  II.,  chs.  xiii-sv ; 
Guthe,  "Israel,"  in  "Enc.  Bib.,"  II.,  cols.  2285-2288. 
While  reading,  note  :  (1)  effect  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
upon  Judaism;  (2)  importance  assumed  by  Jamnia  ; 
(3)  Rome's  treatment  of  Palestine  ;  (4)  events  leading 
to  the  rebellion  of  132  a.  d.  ;  (5)  the  outcome  of  the 
rebellion  ;  (6)  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  in  the  Roman 
empire. 


PART   IV 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  HISTORY 
AND  LITERATURE 


XI 

LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND   THE  FOUR  GOSPELS 

§  46.    Introduction  to  the  Life  op  Jesus. 

1.  Historical  Backgroimd. 

Those  who  have  studied  the  later  Jewish  history  and 
literature,  as  outlined  in  Part  III.,  are  familiar  with 
the  political  background  for  the  history  of  Jesus's  life, 
and  also  with  the  current  beliefs  and  hopes  of  the 
Judaism  into  which  he  was  born.  A  brief  summary  of 
the  general  situation  may  be  found  in  Rhees,  "  Life  of 
Jesus,"  §§  1-19,  and  a  much  fuller  treatment  in  Hast- 
ings, "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  pages  604-609  or,  the  same 
matter,  in  Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life  of  Christ,"  ch.  11. 
Another  article  may  be  found  in  Hastings,  Extra  Vol., 
pages  45-57. 

2.  Sources. 

(1)  Pauline  Epistles. 

Paul's  epistles,  antedating,  as  they  do,  the  composi- 
tion of  all  four  Gospels,  furnish  our  earliest  written 
statements  as  to  the  life  of  Jesus. 

Read  the  following  references,  and  note,  in  writing, 
all  facts  as  to  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus  that  may 
be  gathered  therefrom :  1  Cor.  2\  7^^  9^.14,  1^3  26^ 
153-8,  2  Cor.  41*,  521,  89,  101,  Qal.  1^  4*,  6^,  Rom. 
r,   519,   83,    9^  15a'«,  1  I'hcss.   4'■*-l^  Eph.  3'9,  4^0,  52, 


172    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

Pliil,  2''"^\  Col.  3^^.  Reference  may  be  made  to 
Rhees,  "  Life  Jesus,"  §  20 ;  Anthony,  "  Intro,  to  Life 
Jesus,"  ch.  X. ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life  Jesus,"  pages 
402-406.  For  questions  as  to  date  and  genuineness  of 
the  various  epistles,  reference  may  be  made  to  the 
articles  on  each  epistle  in  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.";  the 
Introductions  of  Bennett  and  Adeney,  Bacon,  Salmon, 
Weiss,  Jiilicher;  von  Soden,  "Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit."; 
Moffatt,  "  Historical  N.  T." 

(2)  Other  Extra-Gospel  New  Testament  Writings. 
A  reference  which  is  probably  comparatively  early  is 

to  be  found  in  First  Peter  '^^^^.  The  following  refer- 
ences are,  on  the  whole,  as  late  as  or  later  than  the  writ- 
ing of  the  first  three  Gospels.  Acts  13,4,9,i3,i6  22,  222,2.3^ 
313,14,  427,  1038-41,  1.324-31,  2035,  1  Tim.  2^.6,  316,  1  Jno. 
15,  38,  49-21,  56,  2  Peter  V-^^\  Heb.  2i0'i8,  3i'2,  41^,  b'-\  V\ 
122f,  1312,  Rev.  15,  55,  2216.  ■ 

(3)  Extra-Biblical  Christian  Writings. 

a.  Sayings  of  Jesus.  Scattered  through  writings  of 
the  Christian  Fathers  or  gathered  together  in  brief  col- 
lections, various  reputed  words  of  Jesus  have  come 
down  to  us,  some  of  which  may  be  genuine.  A  general 
view  of  these  will  be  found  in  Holtzmann,  "  Life 
Jesus,"  pages  54-61 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext. 
Vol.,  pages  343-352 ;  Anthony,  "  Int.  to  Life  Jesus," 
ch.  vii.  (written  before  the  publication  of  the  recently 
discovered"  Sayings  of  Our  Lord,"  Grenfell  and  Hunt. 
For  discussion  of  these,  see  "  Bib.  World,"  Vol.  XXIV., 
pages  261-277.);  Rhees,  "Life  Jesus,"  §  35  (brief 
reference). 

b.  Facts  of  Life  in  Church  Fathers.  Allusions  and 
references  in  the  Church  Fathers  add  little  of  historical 


LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND   THE   FOUR   GOSPELS        173 

value  to  the  gospel  narratives,  aside  from  the  possibly 
authentic  sayings  considered  above.  A  few  data, 
however,  from  Justin  Martyr  (died  between  163  and 
167)  are  given  in  Holtzmann,  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  pages 
17-20. 

c.  Apocryphal  Gospels,  Of  the  various  non-canoni- 
cal gospels,  now  known  in  larger  or  smaller  part,  the 
only  one  which  any  number  of  scholars  regard  as  a 
valuable  historical  source  is  the  Gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews.  Brief  fragments  only  of  this  book  are 
known  to-day.  For  a  presentation  of  the  contents  of 
these  and  of  theories  as  to  the  origin  and  character  of 
the  book,  see  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  Ext.  Vol.,  pages 
338-342.  A  short  discussion,  unfavorable  to  historical 
value,  will  be  found  in  Anthony,  "Int.  to  Life  Jesus," 
pages  84-86.  Holtzmann,  "Life  Jesus,"  pages  46- 
52,  presents  the  contents  more  fully  and  accords  the 
writing  high  value  as  a  source. 

(4)   Boman  and  Greek  Writings. 

References  to  Jesus  in  Roman  and  Greek  writers  of 
the  century  following  his  life  arc,  as  one  might  expect, 
very  few.  The  following  would,  however,  be  sufficient 
to  attest  his  existence  and  the  early  spread  of  his  in- 
fluence, if  the  Christian  writings  were  all  lacking. 
Note  carefully  the  facts  to  bo  gathered  from  these  : 
Tacitus,  "Annals,"  XV.,  44;  Pliny  the  Younger,  "Ei)is- 
tles,"  X.,  96  (07).  The  obscure  allusion  to  Chrestus 
(probably  Christ,  Christiis')  in  Suetonius,  "Life  of 
Claudius,"  25,  and  the  somewhat  later  account  of  the 
Ciiristians  given  by  Lucian,  "Death  of  Peregrinus," 
sliould  also  be  noted.  For  a  discussion  of  these  refer- 
ences, consult  Rhecs,  "  Life  Jesus,"  §  21  (earlier  part) ; 


174     EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Anthony,  "  Int.  to   Life   Jesus,"    eh.    ii. ;    Holtzmann, 
"Life  Jesus,"  page  13  (Tacitus  only). 

(5)  Jewish  Writings. 

The  allusion  in  Josephus,  "  Antiquities,"  Bk.  XX., 
ch.  9,  §  1,  is  the  only  clear  i-eference  to  Jesus  in  Jewish 
writers  of  the  first  century  after  his  life.  Such  a  ref- 
erence as  that  in  Josephus,  "  Bk.  XVIIL,"  ch.  3,  §  3, 
would  be  most  important,  if  it  could  be  regarded  as 
genuine.  That  it  is  entirely  spurious,  or,  at  least,  con- 
tains large  interpolations  is,  however,  generally  recog- 
nized. For  a  discussion  of  the  passages  in  Josephus, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Rhees,  "  Life  Jesus,"  §  21 
(latter  part)  ;  Anthony,  "  Int.  to  Life  Jesus,"  pages 
49-59  ;  Holtzmann,  "  Life  Jesus,"  pages  13-16  ;  "  Enc. 
Brit.,"  XIII.,  page  742,  col.  b. 

(6)  The  Synoptic  Gospels. 

a.  Mark.  Read  Mark  and  make  an  outline  of  its 
contents  in,  perhaps,  four  main  divisions,  with  a  few 
subordinate  headings.  While  reading,  note,  in  writing, 
any  chronological  data,  e.  g.^  l^*  (after  John  was  im- 
prisoned), 2^3  (time  of  ripe  grain). 

In  this  and  the  remaining  gospels,  these  outlines 
and  chronological  references  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served for  use  in  connection  with  subsequent  topics. 

b.  Matthew.  Read  Matthew  and  make  an  outline 
of  its  contents,  similar  to  that  for  Mark,  noting  chron- 
ological data  while  reading.  Compare  the  outline  of 
Matthew  with  Mark,  noting  general  resemblances  and 
differences,  and  observing  especially  what  kind  of 
material  Matthew  has  in  much  greater  fulness  than 
Mark,  and  how  it  is  handled. 


LIFE  OF  JESDS  AND  THE  FOUR  GOSPELS        175 

c.  Luke.  Read  Luke  and  make  an  outline  of  its 
contents  similar  to  that  for  the  other  Synoptists,  noting 
chronological  data  while  reading.  Compare  the  out- 
line of  Luke  with  Mark  and  Matthew,  noting  general 
resemblances  and  differences  in  the  three,  and  observ- 
ing especially  what  period  of  the  ministry,  and  what 
sort  of  material  Luke  has  in  much  greater  fulness 
than  the  others. 

d.  Historical  Relation  of  the  Three :  The  Synoptic 
Problem.  Willi  the  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  Syn- 
optic gospels,  now  acquired,  read  one  or  more  discus- 
sions of  the  Synoptic  problem.  See  Rhees,  "Life 
Jesus,"  §§  22-30;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.," 
pages  316-327  ;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  H.,  pages  235- 
213  ;  "  Enc.  Brit.,"  X.,  pages  789-818  ;  Bacon,  "  Lit. 
N.  T.,"  pages  175-225;  Jiilicher,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages 
338-383;  Holtzmann,  "Life  Jesus,"  pages  16-32; 
]\Ioffatt,  "  Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  258-274.  Note  :  (1)  how 
these  account  for  the  resemblances  ;  (2)  how  these 
account  for  the  differences ;  (3)  the  relation  of  each 
gospel  to  the  common  material  and  the  "  Sayings " ; 
(4)  the  historical  advantage  of  this  theory  of  the 
common  origin  of  these  gospels. 

(7)    The  Fourth  Gospel. 

(1)  Read  John  and  make  an  outline  of  its  contents. 
While  reading,  note  in  writing  any  chronological  data. 

(2)  Compare  the  contents  of  John  with  the  Synojjtic 
gospels,  noting  general  resemblances  and    differences. 

(3)  With  the  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel as  compared  with  the  Synoptics  now  acquired,  read 
one  or  more  Ijrief  discussions  of  the  Johannine  j)robl(;ni. 
Of  the  following,  the  lirst  seven  favor  the  general  re- 


176    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

liability  of  this  gospel  for  the  chronological  outline  of 
the  ministry.  Holtzmann  and  Jiilicher  do  not  regard 
it  as  furnishing  such  an  outline.  Moffatt's  note  does 
not  directly  discuss  this  particular  question.  Rhees, 
"Life  Jesus,"  §§  31-34;  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  328-337  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  11.,  pages 
242-249,  694-721 ;  Anthony,  "  Int.  to  Life  Jesus,"  ch. 
XV.;  Bacon,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  250-279;  Sanday, 
"  Criticism  Fourth  Gosp."  ;  Stanton,  "  Gospels  as  Hist. 
Docs.,"  Part  I.,  ch.  v. ;  Holtzmann,  "  Life  Jesus," 
pages  40-46;  Jiilicher,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  383-429; 
Moffatt,  "  Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  491-497. 

(8)    Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 

a.  Common  Outline  of  Ministry  in  Synoptic  Gospels. 
If  the  widely  accepted  view  that  Mark  gave  Matthew 
and  Luke  their  general  framework  for  the  order  of 
events  be  adopted,  it  will  be  seen,  immediately,  that 
these  three  gospels  furnish  but  one  independent  source 
for  the  general  course  of  the  ministry  of  Jesus. 

b.  Variation  in  Order  and  Historical  Setting  of  the 
teachings.  The  effort  to  arrange  the  teachings,  as 
given  by  the  Synoptists,  in  their  true  order  within  the 
common  framework,  involves  many  difficulties,  some 
of  which  seem  insuperable. 

c.  A  Second  Outline  in  John.  The  Gospel  of  John 
furnishes  another  outline  of  the  ministry.  Those  who 
regard  this  as  a  real  source  for  chronological  order 
must  fit  the  Synoptic  material  into  the,  more  or  less 
obvious,  framework  furnished  by  the  feasts  mentioned 
in  John.  A  glance  at  the  contents  of  any  life  of  Jesus 
will  reveal  the  general  attitude  which  the  author  takes 
toward  these  two  principal  sources.     Modern  Lives  of 


LIFE   OF  JESUS  AND  THE   FOUR   GOSPELS        177 

Jesus  might  be  divided  roughly  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording as  they  adopt  John's  general  framework  and 
hold  to  a  ministry  of  more  than  two  years,  or  reject,  in 
whole  or  part,  the  authority  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  on 
this  subject  and  regard  the  ministry  as  comprehended 
"within  less  than  two  years.  The  problem  of  the  length 
of  the  ministry  will  be  considered,  in  detail,  under 
§47. 

d.  Gospel  Harmony  and  Outline  of  Life  of  Jesus. 
The  close  connection  between  the  effort  to  arrange  the 
matter  of  the  Gospels  with  reference  to  parallelisms 
and  chronological  order  and  the  forming  of  an  histori- 
cal outline  of  the  life  of  Jesus  is  clearly  brought  out 
in  Stevens  and  Burton,  "  Harmony  of  the  Gospels," 
pages  3-14  and  Preface. 

§  47.   General  Discussion  of  the  Life  of  Jesus. 
1.    Chronology. 

(1)  Important  Dates. 

Several  interesting  problems  arise  when  one  seeks  to 
mark  out  the  life  of  Jesus  with  exact  dates.  One  of 
these,  the  length  of  the  public  ministry,  was  suggested 
when  considering  the  possibility  of  harmonizing  John 
and  the  Synoptists.  The  dates  which  it  is  desirable 
to  determine,  as  accurately  as  possible,  are  those  of: 
(1)  the  beginning  of  the  public  ministry ;  (2)  the 
birth  ;  (3)    the  crucifixion. 

(2)  Discussion  of  Chronology. 

First  gather  together  the  chronological  data  noted 
under  §  46,  2,  (6),  a,b,  c,  and  (7).  With  these  in  mind, 
read  one  or  more  of  the  followhig  discussions:  Rhccs, 
«  Life  Jesus,"  §^  45-57  ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life  Jesus," 

12 


178    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

pages  14-24,  67-78 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  L,  pages 
403-415,  II.,  pages  645-647;  '^  Enc.  Bib.,"  L,  eols.  799- 
809 ;  Holtzmann,  "  Life  Jesus,"  pages  86-90,  109-111  ; 
Ramsay,  "  Was  Christ  Born  at  Bethlehem  ?  "  In  read- 
ing, weigh  critically  the  arguments,  on  the  basis  of  the 
data  personally  noted.  Which  seems  more  satisfying, 
the   longer  or  shorter  period  ? 

2.   Period  of  Preparation. 

Road  critically  the  discussion  of  this  period  in  one  or 
more  of  the  following  Lives:  Rhees,"  Life  Jesus,"  §§  58- 
105  ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life  Jesus,"  chs.  ii.-v.,  vii. ; 
Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life  Christ,"  ch.  vii.  and  ch.  iii.  to 
page  46;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  pages  610-613; 
Holtzmann,  "•  Life  Jesus,"  pages  81-154.  For  the  apoc- 
ryphal stories  of  the  birth  and  childhood,  reference  may 
be  made  to  J.  Q.  Donehoo,  "  Apocryphal  and  Legendary 
Life  of  Christ."  While  reading,  divide  the  material 
into :  (1)  the  early  years ;  (2)  the  immediate  prepar- 
ation for  the  ministry,  beginning  with  the  work  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  note  the  following  points :  (1)  amount 
and  nature  of  information  as  to  the  birth,  childhood,  and 
youth  of  Jesus  in  the  New  Test. ;  (2)  what  may  prop- 
erly be  inferred  as  to  the  education  and  religious  train- 
ing of  Jesus ;  (3)  facts  as  to  the  life  and  work  of  John 
the  Baptist;  (4)  his  relation  to  the  various  Jewish 
parties  and  religious  tendencies  of  his  day  ;  (5)  his 
relation  to  the  Old  Test,  prophets  ;  (6)  origin  of  his 
rite  of  baptism;  (7)  his  personality;  (8)  facts  as  to 
the  baptism  and  call  of  Jesus;  (9)  real  nature  and 
significance  of  the  temptation;  (10)  call  of  first 
disciples;  (11)  events  at  Cana;  (12)  removal  to 
Capernaum. 


LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND   THE   FOUR   GOSPELS        179 

Consider:  (1)  at  what  part  of  this  preparation 
should  the  deliberate  self-consecration  of  Jesus  to  his 
work  be  placed  ?  (2)  tlie  real  value  to  Jesus  of  John's 
ministry,  (3)  the  extent  to  which  Jesus  was  educated 
for  his  career. 

3.    Period  of  Ministi'y. 

(1)  General  Survey. 

Compare  the  outlines  of  the  four  Gospels  made 
under  §  46,  2,  (6),  (7),  noting  the  general  course  of 
the  ministry  as  given  in  the  Synoptists  and  in  John. 
(2)  Make  a  comparison  of  two  or  three  of  the  outlines 
of  the  ministry  given  in  the  following  references : 
Rhees,  "Life  Jesus,"  §§  106-112;  Gilbert,  "Student's 
Life  Jesus,"  ch.  vi. ;  Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life  Christ," 
pages  32,  33  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  pages  610- 
613;  Holtzmann,  "Life  Jesus,"  ch.  iii,,  noting  the 
attitude  of  each  writer  toward  the  Synoptic  and  the 
Johannine  outlines. 

(2)  Early  Judean  Ministry. 

Only  those  who  accept  the  Fourth  Gospel  as  a  chron- 
ological authority  recognize  a  beginning  of  the  public 
ministry  in  Jerusalem.  For  a  presentation  of  the  brief 
material  concerning  this  period  see  :  Rlices,  "  Life 
Jesus,"  §§  113-121;  Gilbert,  "Student's  Life  Jesus," 
ch.  viii. ;  Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life  Christ,"  pages  47- 
50 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  11.,  page  613.  While 
reading,  note  :  (1)  probable  length  of  period;  (2)  (jues- 
tion  as  to  true  ])lacc  in  tlie  ministry  of  cleansing 
temple;  (3)  results  of  early  ministry  in  Jerusalem; 
(4)  ministry  in  Judea  outside  of  Jerusalem;  (5)  arrest 
of  John  ;  (6)    journey  through  Samaria. 


180    EARLY  CHRISTIAN    HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

Consider  thoughtfully :  (1)  the  logical  reason  which 
would  justify  Jesus  in  taking  his  first  opportunity  to 
present  himself  and  press  his  claims  at  Jerusalem ;  (2) 
the  reason  why  his  ministry  at  the  capital  was  a  failure ; 
(3)  the  character  of  much  of  his  work  with  individuals, 
as  illustrated  in  the  interview  with  Nicodemus. 

(3)     Galilean  Ministry. 

a.  Period  of  Public  Activity.  Read  one  or  more  of 
the  following  accounts  :  Rhees,  "  Life  Jesus,"  pages 
115-137  ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life  Jesus,"  pages  110- 
178;  Sanday,  "Outlines  Life  Christ,"  pages  50-63, 
(pages  65-117,  concerning  teaching  of  Jesus,  include 
teachings  of  later  ministry  with  those  of  this  period), 
119-124 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  pages  613-616, 
(616-628  concerning  teaching),  628,  629,  col.  a; 
Holtzraann,  "  Life  Jesus,"  chs.  ix.,  x.  While  reading, 
seek  to  gain  a  clear  impression  of  :  (1)  the  long  con- 
tinued (under  the  three-year  theory,  for  a  whole  year) 
and  varied  activity  in  the  villages  and  synagogues  of 
Galilee ;  (2)  dominant  theme  of  this  public  ministry ; 
(3)  geographical  extent  of  it ;  (4)  enthusiastic  attitude 
of  the  populace  ;  (5)  grounds  of  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  religious  leaders ;  (6)  result  of  that  opposition 
in  forcing  a  change  of  policy  on  his  part;  (7)  choice  of 
the  Twelve ;  (8)  the  process,  by  instruction,  demonstra- 
tion, and  association,  of  bringing  the  Twelve  to  a  recog- 
nition of  his  messiahship;  (9)  leading  themes  of  his 
discourses  during  this  period ;  (10)  his  mighty  works ; 
(11)  his  parables  of  encouragement ;  (12)  the  mission 
of  the  Twelve  and  their  instructions ;  (13)  events  which 
brought  this  period  of  public  activity  in  Galilee  to  an 
end. 


LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND    THE   FOUR   GOSPELS        181 

Consider  thoughtfully  :  (1)  the  justification  for  those 
first  months  of  rapid  evangelization ;  (2)  greater  wis- 
dom of  the  policy  of  associating  a  few  picked  men 
with  himself;  (3)  what  Jesus  meant  to  do  with  and  for 
them  ;  (4)  the  light  thrown  upon  the  events  following 
the  choice  of  the  Twelve  by  the  supposition  that  Jesus 
intended  to  enable  the  Twelve  to  decide  for  themselves 
regarding  him. 

b.  Period  of  Withdrawal  with  Immediate  Followers, 
Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  accounts :  Rhees 
"  Life  Jesus,"  pages  138-152  ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life 
Jesus,"  pages  178-215  ;  Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life  Christ," 
pages  124-129  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  XL,  pages  629- 
630,  col.  a;  Holtzmann,  "Life  Jesus,"  ch.  xi.  While 
reading,  note:  (1)  immediate  occasion  of  the  first  with- 
drawal from  Galilee  ;  (2)  extent  of  the  wandering  ;  (3) 
cause  of  the  second  withdrawal  to  Caesarea  Philippi ; 
(4)  significance  of  the  confession  of  Peter,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  plans  of  Jesus  and  of  the  growth  of 
the  Twelve  ;  (5)  significance  of  the  transfiguration  ;  (6) 
themes  of  the  conversations  of  the  next  few  weeks;  (7) 
teaching  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles;  (8)  close  of  the 
Galilean  ministry,  —  before  or  after  Tabernacles?  (9) 
length  of  the  period. 

Consider  thoughtfully:  (1)  the  scene  at  Caesarea 
Philippi  as  the  turning-point  in  the  active  ministry  of 
Jesus  ;  (2)  necessity  of  independent  conviction  on  part 
of  the  Twelve  regarding  his  messiahship,  before  a  real 
training  could  be  begun;  (3)  the  enormous  difficulties 
still  to  be  overcome  with  disciples  educated  in  the 
current  ideas  and  hopes  of  Judaism  ;  (4)  necessity  of 
linking  the  old  idea  of  glory  with  the  now  idea  of 
serviccableness. 


182    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

(4)  Pereaii  Ministry. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  accounts :  Rhces, 
"  Life  Jesus,"  pages  153-165 ;  Gilbert,  "  Student's  Life 
Jesus,"  chs.  xiv.,  xv. ;  Sanday,  "Outlines  Life  Christ," 
pages  129-137,  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  IL,  pages  630- 
632;  Holtzmann,  "Life  Jesus,"  ch.  xii.  While  read- 
ing, note  carefully :  (1)  just  what  the  sources  for  the 
period  are  and  the  difficulties  of  harmonizing  them; 
(2)  the  impression  given  in  the  third  Gospel  of  a  long 
wandering  here  and  there  with  the  goal  in  mind ;  (3) 
the  two  journeys  to  the  capital  implied  by  the  fourth 
Gospel ;  (4)  the  remarkable  teachings  of  this  period, 
and  their  themes ;  (5)  the  mission  of  the  Seventy  (by 
some  regarded  as  a  duplicate  of  the  mission  of  the 
Twelve). 

Consider  thoughtfully :  (1)  the  advance  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  teachings  of  Jesus ;  (2)  the  significance 
of  the  period  as  a  time  for  the  quiet  training  of  the 
Twelve ;  (3)  the  deliberate  resolve  of  the  religious 
leaders  to  make  way  with  Jesus  at  the  first  opportunity. 

(5)  The  Last  Days. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Rhees, 
"Life  Jesus,"  pages  166-200 ;  Gilbert,  " Student's  Life 
Jesus,"  ch.  xvi.;  Sanday,  "Outlines  Life  Christ," 
pages  139-169;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  H.,  pages  632- 
638 ;  Holtzmann,  "  Life  Jesus,"  ch.  xiii.  While  read- 
ing, seek  to  gain  a  clear  impression  of :  (1)  the  order 
of  events  during  the  last  days,  considering  especially  the 
questions  as  to  the  day  of  seclusion  and  the  date  of  the 
supper;  (2)  any  considerations,  additional  to  those 
noted  under  3,  (2)  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the 
time  of  cleansing  the  temple;    (3)  Jesus's  deliberate 


LIFE   OF  JESUS  AND    THE   FOUR  GOSPELS        183 

assertion  of  himself  as  Messiah,  during  the  first  days  of 
the  week ;  (4)  his  unsparing  and  deliberate  setting  of  a 
gulf  between  his  character  and  methods  and  those  of 
the  religious  leaders  of  Judaism  ;  (5)  elimination  of  the 
traitor  from  the  gathering  at  the  supper ;  (6)  Jesus's 
unreserved  self -disclosure  to  his  chosen  followers  dur- 
ing that  last  evening  together ;  (7)  the  great  themes  of 
•that  discourse ;  (8)  the  arrest,  trials,  crucifixion,  and 
burial. 

Consider  carefully :  (1)  the  impression  of  over- 
whelming power  held  in  check,  made  by  these  narra- 
tives of  the  last  week  ;  (2)  the  easy  dominance  of  the 
personality  of  Jesus  over  disciples,  enemies,  soldiers, 
and  rulers ;  (3)  the  complete  injustice  of  tiic  pro- 
cedure against  him ;  (4)  the  necessary  conclusion  that 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ  was  voluntary. 

(6)   The  Resurrection. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references : 
Riiees,  "Life  Jesus,"  pages  201-216;  Gilbert,  "Stu- 
dent's Life  Jesus,"  ch.  xvii. ;  Sanday,  "  Outlines  Life 
Christ,"  pages  170-190;  Hastings,  "Diet,  irib.,"  IL, 
pages  638-043,  col.  a ;  Holtzmann,  "  Life  Jesus," 
pages  492-506.  While  reading,  seek  to  secure :  (1)  a 
clear  impression  of  the  liistorical  influence  of  the  be- 
lief in  the  resurrection  ;  (2)  definite  knowledge  of  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  evidence  for  the  resur- 
rection ;  (3)  various  theories  as  to  the  real  explana- 
tion of  the  resurrection  belief,  with  the  grounds  of 
each  ;  (4)  different  conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  tlie 
resurrection,  physical  or  spiritual,  with  the  grounds 
of  each. 


184  early  christian  history  and  literature 

§  48.   The  Gospels  as  Literature. 

In  treating  the  Gospels  as  sources  for  history,  it  is 
necessary  to  analyze  them  into  their  component  parts 
and  to  trace,  as  far  as  possible,  their  genesis.  In  this 
process,  their  beauty  and  power  as  books,  each  growing 
out  of  different  conditions  and  each  presenting  the 
personality  of  Jesus  from  a  different  view-point,  may 
become  obscured.  It  is  well,  therefore,  at  this  stage 
in  the  course,  to  consider  each  of  these  books  as  a  lit- 
erary unit,  although  as  literature  they  belong  to  the 
time  of  their  writing,  the  Apostolic  Age. 

1.   Mark. 

Read  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  if  possible  at  a  single  sit- 
ing, and  let  the  book  make  its  own  complete  impression. 
Test  this  impression  by  another  rapid  survey  of  the 
book  as  a  whole.  Try  then  to  formulate  in  writing 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  Gospel  as  a  literary 
product.  Consider,  for  instance :  (1)  the  conception 
of  Jesus  which  the  writer  aimed  to  set  forth,  and  the 
aspects  of  our  Lord's  active  ministry  which  he  desired 
to  emphasize  ;  (2)  the  method  by  which  this  picture 
of  Jesus  and  his  ministry  is  given  expression  by  the 
use  of  little  more  than  the  common  Gospel  material; 
(3)  the  details  of  the  Gospel  story  found  only  or 
predominantly  in  Mark,  and  their  value  ;  (4)  the  type 
of  mind  to  which  the  Gospel  of  Mark  would  naturally 
have  appealed  in  the  first  century. 

Form  an  opinion  regarding  the  distinctive  and  per- 
manently valuable  characteristics  of  Mark's  Gospel. 
Aside  from  its  usefulness  as  a  record  of  the  most  im- 


LIFE  OF  JESUS  AND   THE  FOUR  GOSPELS        185 

portaiit  details  of  tlie  active  life  of  Jesus,  what  docs  it 
contribute  to  the  religious  thought  of  to-day  ? 

For  a  discussion  of  any  questions  that  may  arise  as 
to  the  history  or  literary  characteristics  of  the  book, 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  articles  on  Mark  in 
Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.";  "Enc.  Bib.";  the  Introduc- 
tions of  Bennett  and  Adeney,  Bacon,  Salmon,  B.  Weiss, 
and  Jiilicher ;  Gould,  "  Mark,"  in  "  Internat.  Crit. 
Com.";  Bruce,  Int.  to  "Mark,"  in  " Expositor's  Gk, 
Test.,"  I. ;  Swete,  "  Gospel  according  to  Mark  "  ;  Men- 
zies,  "  The  Earliest  Gospel." 

2.    Matthew. 

Read  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  like  that  of  Mark, 
repeatedly,  so  as  to  gain  a  fair  impression  of  it  as  a 
whole.  Try  then  to  formulate  in  writing  its  character- 
istic features.  Consider  :  (1)  the  importance  of  the 
material  which  this  Gospel  introduces  in  addition  to 
and  in  enlargement  of  that  which  is  found  in  Mark,  in 
determining  the  conception  of  Jesus  which  the  author 
desired  to  set  forth ;  (2)  the  value  of  the  author's 
habit  of  grouping  his  material ;  (3)  the  data  which  he 
included  in  greatest  detail ;  (4)  the  theme  or  themes 
of  the  Gospel. 

Compare  the  first  Gospel  with  that  of  Mark :  (1)  in 
the  general  method  of  presentation ;  (2)  in  literary 
values ;  (3)  in  the  portraiture  of  Jesus ;  (4)  in  its 
contribution  to  our  grasp  of  motives,  methods,  and 
results  of  the  active  ministry  of  Jesus. 

For  a  discussion  of  questions  conccrniug  the  book, 
reference  should  be  made  to  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.," 
art.  "Mt.,  Cos.";  the  "Introductions"  noted  above; 
Bruce,  "  Matt.,"  Intro.,  in  "  Expos.  Gk,  Test,,"  I. 


18G     ExVRLY  CHRISTIAN    HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

3.    Luke. 

Read  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  repeatedly,  as  a  whole. 
The  great  critic  Renan  termed  it  "  the  most  beautiful 
book  in  the  world."  An  effort  to  realize  this  literary 
perfection  for  one's  self  is  well  worth  while.  Luke  is 
worthy  of  careful  study,  not  alone  as  fine  literature, 
but  as  a  noble  portrayal  of  Christ  among  men.  Bruce 
declares  that  Luke's  Gospel  is  only  to  be  fully  appre- 
ciated by  mature  Christians  with  a  ripened  Christian 
experience.  Luke  had  in  mind,  he  says,  not  the  active 
Jesus  so  much  as  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  risen 
Saviour.  Read  the  Gospel,  determining  to  get  at  the 
secret  of  its  power  over  men,  noting  carefully :  (1)  how 
the  material  which  this  Gospel  introduces,  in  addition 
to  that  found  elsewhere  regarding  Jesus,  helps  us  to 
determine  the  motive  of  the  author  and  his  conception 
of  Jesus ;  (2)  why  Luke  should  give  two-fifths  of  his 
Gospel  to  the  story  of  a  period  which  the  other  Synop- 
tists  span  with  a  chapter  or  two  (Mark  Q-^^-lO^^ ; 
Matthew  1722-203* ;  Luke  951-192")  ;  (3)  what  material 
Luke's  Gospel  alone  gives ;  (4)  the  literary  character- 
istics which  justify  Renan's  encomium  ;  (5)  the  theme 
or  themes  of  the  Gospel. 

Compare  the  third  Gospel  with  those  of  Mark  and 
Matthew,  noting :  (1)  its  difference  in  plan  of  presen- 
tation ;  (2)  the  varying  methods  of  embellishment ; 
(3)  the  distinctive  emphasis  of  each  one  on  a  certain 
view-point  of  Jesus  ;  (4)  Luke's  fresh  survey  of  the 
active  ministry,  and  large  additions  to  our  knowledge 
concerning  it. 

Select  passages  in  each  Gospel  which  embody  the 


LIFE   OF  JESUS   AND   THE   FOUR   GOSPELS        187 

peculiar  values  of  each,  aud  best  represent  the  author's 
skill  as  a  writer. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  book,  reference  should  be 
made  to:  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "Luke,  Gosp. 
of";  the  "Introductions"  above  noted;  Plummcr, 
"Luke,"  Intro.,  in  "Internat.  Grit.  Gom." ;  Bruce, 
"  Luke,"  Intro.,  in  "  Expos.  Gk.  Test,"  I. 

4.   John. 

Read  the  Gospel  of  John,  at  one  sitting,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, more  than  once,  so  as  to  gain  a  vivid,  but 
general,  impression  of  what  it  contains.  Then  consider 
carefully  and  formulate  in  writing:  (1)  the  dominant 
theme  of  the  Gospel ;  (2)  the  motive  of  the  author  in 
preparing  it ;  (3)  the  peculiar  method  used  by  the 
author  in  chronicling  the  active  ministrv  of  Jesus, 
and  its  justification  ;  (4)  the  most  distinctive  addition 
made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  life  of  Jesus  by  this 
Gospel ;  (5)  the  reason  why  the  Fourth  Gospel  takes 
five  long  chapters  (13-17)  to  record  what  the  Synop- 
tists  cover  (Luke  22^^-^,  Matthew  2620-29,  Mark  14''-25) 
in  a  few  verses  ;  (6)  the  value  of  the  Gospel  as 
literature. 

Compare  the  Fourth  Gospel  with  the  Synoptic 
Gospels :  (1)  in  the  style  of  spcccli  attributed  to 
Jesus  ;  (2)  in  the  general  locality,  trend,  and  culmina- 
tion of  his  ministry ;  (3)  in  the  announcement  of 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah;  (4)  in  the  motive  back  of  the 
nortraval  of  Christ.  Account  for  these  differences, 
proceeding,  as  they  did,  from  one  who  was  an  eye- 
witness and  a  loyal  discii)lo.  Do  they  invalidate  cither 
the  Fourth  Gospel  or  the  Synoptic  Gospels  'i 


188     EARLY   CHRISTIAN    HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE 

For  a  discussion  of  questions,  reference  may  be  made 
to :  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  art.  "  John,  Gosp.  of  "  ;  the 
"Introductions"  already  mentioned;  Sanday,  "Criti- 
cism Fourth  Gosp."  ;  Dods,  "  John,"  in  "  Expos.  Gk. 
Test.," 


XII 

THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE    (c.  30-100  a.  d.) 

§  49.  Period  of  the  Rise  of  the  Church  and  its 
Spread  in  Syria  (c.  30-44  a.  d.). 

1.    Sources. 

For  the  history  of  Christianity  in  the  first  period  of 
the  Apostolic  Age  we  are  dependent  upon  the  book  of 
Acts,  except  as  occasional  references  in  Paul's  epistles 
throw  light  upon  that  portion  of  his  life  which  falls 
within  the  period. 

(1)   Acts  1-12,  223-21,  262-23. 

(1)  Read  chapters  1-12  and  make  a  brief  outline  of 
their  contents.  (2)  Compare  the  three  accounts  of 
Paul's  conversion  (O^-^,  223-21,  262-23),  noting  the  facts 
in  common  and  the  differences. 

In  preparation  for  considering  the  sources  and  relia- 
bility of  Acts  1-12,  the  following  details  should  receive 
careful  attention :  (1)  the  speeches  ascribed  to  Peter, 
Stephen,  Gamaliel.  Summarize  the  thought  of  each. 
Note  Thucydides's  practice  as  to  speeches,  "  Hist,  of 
Peloponncsian  War,"  I.,  22i.  Note,  in  connection  with 
Gamaliel's  speech,  Josophus's  account  of  uju-isings 
under  Judas  and  Theudas,  "Antiq.,"  XVIli.,  l''--«,  cf. 
XX.,  52  and  "Jewish  War,"  II.,  81, "  Antiq.,"  XX.,  b\  ob- 
serving the  apparent  anachronism.     (2)  Paul's  account 


190     EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE 

of  his  visits  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  lii-2i^)  in  comparison 
with  the  accounts  in  Acts  ;  (3)  Paul's  conception  of 
the  gift  of  tongues  (1  Cor.  12-14)  in  comparison  witli 
the  account  in  Acts  2.  (4)  Joseplius's  account  of  the 
death  of  Agrippa  in  comparison  with  the  account  in 
Acts  12,  "Antiq.,"  Bk.  XIX.,  8^.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
sources  and  reliability  of  Acts  1-12,  rcfe/ence  should 
be  made  to  two  or  more  of  the  following :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  343-345,  376,  377  (fine 
print);  B.  Weiss,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  II.,  pages  326-340, 
353-355  ;  Hast.,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  29-35  ;  Ram- 
say, "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pages  1-23,  367-372  ; 
Chase,  "  Credibility  of  Acts  of  Apostles,"  Lects.  I-III. ; 
Votaw,  "  Apost.  Age,"  ch.  13 ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.," 
pages  225-229  ;  Jiilicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  433-451 ; 
Von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  245-247 ; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  45-49.  Of  the  foregoing  the  first 
six  maintain  more  of  historical  accuracy  for  this  por- 
tion of  Acts  than  the  remaining  four.  In  reading,  it  is 
well  to  select  references,  one  from  each  group. 

(2)  Pauline  Epistles.  Note  the  facts  concerning  the 
early  life  of  Paul  that  may  be  gathered  from  Gal.  11^-2^^, 

2  Cor.  1121-2T.  32,  33^  121^4^  ^q^^[  77-n 

2.    Greneral  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references :  Bart- 
let,  "  Apost.  Age,"  pages  1-63  ;  Votaw,  "  Apost.  Age  ; " 
clis.  i-v.  ;  McGiffert,  "  Hist,  of  Chsty.  in  Apost,  Age," 
pages  36-124,  151-172;  "Weizsacker,  "Apost.  Age  of 
Chstn.  Churcli,"  I.,  pages  1-110.  While  reading,  note  : 
(1)  influences  which  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  the  Ciiristian  community  in  Jerusalem;  (2)  char- 
acter of  the  organization  of  the  community ;  (3)  early 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  191 

relations  with  the  leaders  of  Judaism ;  (4)  influences 
which  led  to  the  spread  of  the  church  in  Palestine  and 
Syria  ;  (5)  causes  of  Paul's  conversion  ;  (6)  differences 
in  the  accounts  of  Paul's  conversion  and  probabilities 
as  to  the  actual  course  of  events ;  (7)  early  years  of 
Paul's  Christian  life;  (8)  problems  arising  in  connec- 
tion with  the  narrative  of  Peter's  experiences  at  Jop[)a 
and  Cacsarea;  (9)  founding  and  character  of  the  church 
at  Antioch ;  (10)  true  significance  of  this  church ; 
(11)  the  Jerusalem  famine,  its  probable  date  and  the 
relation  of  Paul's  famine  visit  to  his  Jerusalem  visits 
recorded  in  Galatians ;  (12)  facts  of  Agrippa's  persecu- 
tion; (13)  date  of  the  persecution. 

Consider  carefully :  (1)  the  acknowledged  leadership 
of  Peter  in  the  Jerusalem  church,  and  its  explanation; 
(2)  speedy  prominence  of  forcign-bo^n  Jews  in  the 
brotherhood  ;  (3)  far-reaching  effect  of  the  martyrdom 
of  Stephen ;  (4)  rapid  spread  of  the  Christian  church 
on  all  sides ;  (5)  the  new  forces  at  work  in  the  world. 

3.    Literature  of  the  Period. 

It  is  possible  that  the  epistle  of  James  was  written 
at  the  close  of  this  period.  Its  background  seems,  in 
some  details,  that  of  this  early  time.  If  this  is  the  case, 
it  is  the  earliest  Christian  writing  that  has  come  down 
to  us.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  indications  in  the 
book  pointing  strongly  to  a  time  after  Jewisli  Christi- 
anity had  lost  its  first  vision  and  enthusiasm,  and  Paul's 
letters  had  long  been  written.  In  the  present  course 
of  study,  the  epistle  will  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  later  period.  Aside  from,  possibly,  Jnmos, 
we  have  no  literature  from  the  first  period  of  the 
Apostolic  Age. 


192    EARLY  CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

§  50.    Period  op  Gentile  Missions  (c.  44-64  a.  d.). 

In  dealing  with  the  comparatively  abundant  material 
of  this  period  we  divide  the  section  into  three  parts, 
considering,  in  turn,  the  sources,  history,  and  literature 
of  each  part. 

A.  Spread  of  the  Church  in  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia, 
and  Greece  (Paul's  "  first  and  second  missionary 
journeys  "). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)  Acts  13-1822. 

Read  the  section  and  make  an  outline  of  its  con- 
tents, noting :  (1)  the  course  of  each  journey  ;  (2)  the 
portion  of  the  narrative  written  in  the  first  person. 
Summarize,  in  writing,  the  speeches  ascribed  to  Paul, 
Peter,  and  James. 

(2)  First  and  Second  Thessalonians  and  Galatians. 
Read  the  epistles  rapidly,  noting:  (1)  any  references 

that  help  to  connect  them  with  the  history  as  given  in 
Acts ;  (2)  any  light  that  they  throw  upon  the  move- 
ments of  Paul  in  this  period,  and  upon  the  circum- 
stances, experiences,  and  character  of  the  Christian 
communities  in  Thessalonica  and  Galatia. 

(3)  Philippians  l^  4i5.i6. 

Note  facts  about  the  early  history  of  the  Church  at 
Philippi,  in  this  late  epistle. 

(4)  First  Corinthians,  2^"^ 

Note,  in  this  epistle,  afterward  written  to  Corinth, 
the  nature  of   Paul's  early  work  there. 

For  discussion  of  First  and  Second  Thessalonians, 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  193 

see  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  353-355, 
357-359  ;  B.  Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  I.,  pages  218-220, 
22-1-234 ;  Burton,  "  Records  and  Letters  of  Apos. 
Age,"  pages  210,  211;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib.,"  IV., 
pages  743^  744,  745, 746,  747-749 ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.," 
pages  71,  73-79  ;  Julicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  55-60, 
61-68;  von  Soden,  "Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages 
27-35,  324-333;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  cols.  5036-5045; 
G.  G.  Findlay,  "1,2  Thess.,"  in  "Camb.  Gk.  Test." 
Of  the  foregoing,  all  hold  to  the  Pauline  authorship  of 
First  Thess. ;  von  Soden  rejects  the  Pauline  authorship 
of  Second  Thess.,  and  McGiffert,  in  Hastings,  considers 
it  doubtful  ;  the  remainder  regard  this  epistle,  like  the 
first,  as  a  genuine  writing  of  Paul.  For  a  brief  presen- 
tation of  the  view  that  there  are  no  genuine  epistles  of 
Paul,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  article  by  Professor 
van  Manen,  of  Leyden,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  III.,  cols.  3625- 
3630.  An  elaborate  and  effective  refutation  of  van 
Manen's  position  may  be  found  in  Knowling,  "  Testi- 
mony of  St.  Paul  to  Christ,"  especially  chs.  ii.-iv. 

For  the  authorship  and  occasion  of  Galatians,  consult 
Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  372-375 ;  B. 
Weiss,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  L,  pages  234-241,  248-250; 
Burton,  "  Records  and  Letters  of  Apost.  Age,"  pages 
212-216  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II.,  pages  93-97  ; 
Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  54-60  ;  Julicher,  "  Int. 
N.  T.,"  pages  70-78 ;  von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn. 
Lit.,"  pages  56-71  ;  "  Euc.  liib.,"  II.,  cols.  1617-1626. 
Of  the  foregoing,  Bennett  and  Adeney,  Julicher,  and 
Schmiedel,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  regard  Galatians  as  written 
during  the  third  missionary  journey ;  Bacon  and  Bur- 
ton, as  also  Bartlet,  McGiffert,  and  Ramsay,  place  it, 
as  in   the   present   course,  before  the  third   journey  ; 

13 


194    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

while   Dods,  in   Hastings,  and   von   Soden   leave   the 
question  open. 

2.    Genei'ol  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Bart- 
let,  "Apost.  Age.,"  pages  64-119;  Votaw,  "  Apost. 
Age,"  chs.  6,  7  ;  McGiffert,  "  Hist,  of  Chstj.  in  Apost. 
Age,"  pages  172-274;  Weizsacker,  "Apost.  Age  of 
Chstn.  Church,"  pages  110-122  (123-174),  175-317; 
Ramsay,  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pages  64-265. 
While  reading,  note  :  (1)  the  brief  account  of  work  in 
Cyprus;  was  it  the  first  Christian  work  on  the  island? 
(2)  significance  of  the  change  in  Acts  from  the  use  of 
the  name  Saul  to  Paul;  (3)  arguments  for  the  view 
that  Paul's  Galatian  churches  were  those  founded  on 
the  "  first  missionary  journey  "  (South-Galatian 
theory);  (4)  different  theories  as  to  what  constituted 
Paul's  two  visits  to  Galatia  antedating  the  epistle  ;  (5) 
early  history  of  the  Galatian  churches;  (6)  coming  of 
the  Judaizers  and  the  significance  of  the  issue  which 
Paul  met  in  the  Galatian  churches ;  (7)  the  issue  in 
the  Apostolic  Council  at  Jerusalem ;  (8)  relations  of 
the  narratives  of  Gal.  '2^~^^  and  Acts  15  ;  (9)  difficulties 
concerning  the  decree  of  the  Council ;  (10)  portion  of 
Paul's  "  second  missionary  journey  "  recorded  in  the 
"travel-diary";  (11)  founding  and  inner  history  of 
the  churches  at  Thessalonica  and  Philippi ;  (12)  Paul's 
work  in  Beroea ;  (13)  possibility  of  wider  circuit,  ex- 
tending to  Illyricum,  at  this  time  ;  (14)  known  facts  of 
Paul's  Athenian  labors  ;  (15)  place  of  the  Areopagus 
discourse;  (16)  Paul's  work  in  Corinth,  its  duration, 
nature,  and  results  ;  (17)  route  and  events  of  tlie  return 
journey  to  Antioch ;  (18)  question  as  to  a  Jerusalem 
visit  at  this  time. 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  195 

3.    Literature  of  the  Time. 

(1)  First  Tliessalonians. 

a.  Contents  and  Characteristics.  Make  an  outline 
of  the  epistle,  following  tlie  paragi'aph  divisions  of  the 
Revised  Version,  expressing  in  a  sentence  the  essential 
idea  of  each  paragraph.  Note  carefully :  (1)  words  or 
phrases  so  often  repeated  as  to  seem  distinctive;  (2) 
Paul's  reasons  for  writing  to  the  church  at  Thessa- 
lonica ;  (3)  his  practical  advice  to  the  church ;  (4)  his 
affirmations  regarding  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ, 

b.  The  Writer.  Consider:  (1)  what  light  the  letter 
throws  upon  the  personality  of  Paul ;  (2)  what  seemed 
to  be  his  predominant  motive  for  writing  the  letter. 

c.  Value  as  Literature.  Determine  the  elements  that 
gave  permanence  to  the  epistle. 

(2)  Second  Thessalonians. 

a.  Contents.  Make  an  outline  of  the  epistle,  guided 
by  the  paragraph  divisions  of  the  Revised  Version, 
writing  down  the  essential  thought  of  each  paragraph. 
Note  :  (1)  Paul's  special  reason  for  writing  the  second 
letter;  (2)  his  added  declarations  regarding  the  Second 
Coming;  (3)  liis  practical  advice. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  or  understanding  these  ei)is- 
tles,  reference  may  be  made  to  Findlay,  "  The  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians,"  in  the  "  Cambridge  Grk.  Testa- 
ment," and  to  the  excellent  articles  by  Lock  in  Hast., 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV. 

(3)  Galatians. 

a.  Contents  and  Characteristics.  JMake  a  careful 
outline  of  th*;  epistle,  guided  by  the  paragraphing  of 
the    Revised    Version,   expressing    in    a   sentence    the 


196    EARLY  CHRISTIAN    HISTORY  AND    LITERATURE 

essential  thought  of  each  paragraph.  Consider:  (1) 
the  sharp  variation  from  First  Thess.  in  tone  and  in 
the  method  of  introduction,  and  the  explanation ;  (2) 
the  outline  of  Paul's  argument  for  freedom  from  obli- 
gation to  obey  the  Mosaic  Law ;  (3)  Paul's  description 
of  this  Christian  freedom;  (4)  his  use  of  allegory 
^421-31^      Did  he  need  it  to  validate  his  argument  ? 

b.  Personality  of  the  Author.  Consider:  (1)  What 
criticisms,  directed  against  him  by  the  Judaizers,  lie 
was  aiming  to  answer  ;  (2)  the  liistorical  data  regard- 
ing him  set  forth  in  the  letter  ;  (3)  the  traits  of  char- 
acter revealed. 

c.  Value.  The  argument  of  Galatians  is  largely 
antiquated.  What  gives  such  real  and  abiding  value 
to  the  epistle  ? 

As  an  aid  to  the  interpretation  of  Galatians,  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  Lightfoot,  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to 
Galatians,"  or  to  Kendall  "  Epistle  to  the  Galatians," 
in  "  Expos.  Grk.  Test,,"  or  to  the  paraphrase  by  Stevens 
in  "  Messages  of  Paul." 

B.  Further  Development  of  the  Church  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece  (Paul's  "  third  missionary  journey"). 

1.    Sources. 

(1)    Acts  1823-2116. 

Read  the  section  and  make  an  outline  of  its  contents, 
noting  carefully  the  rather  fragmentary  outline  of  travels 
and  also  the  portions  written  in  the  first  person. 

Some  references  to  the  sources  and  reliability  of 
Acts  as  a  whole  were  included  in  the  discussions 
named  under  §  49,  1,  (1).  For  discussion  bearing 
more  particularly  upon  Acts  13-21,  reference  may  be 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  197 

made  to  :  B.  Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T,"  IL,  343-353  ;  Hast., 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  31  col.  b,  32  col.  a,  33  col.  b  to 
35  ;  Ramsay,  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pages  383-386  ; 
Chase,  "  Credibility  of  Acts,"  Lect.  lY. ;  Bacon,  "  Int. 
N.  T.,"  pages  228,  229 ;  Jlilicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages 
443,  445-451  ;  von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.," 
pages  237-245  ;  ''  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  37-44.  In  this 
portion  of  Acts  all  of  the  foregoing  find  parts  which 
indicate  an  eye-witness  and  arc  of  the  highest  liis- 
torical  value.  Many  who  ascribe  great  liistorical  trust- 
worthiness to  the  earlier  chapters  recognize  that,  in  tlie 
accounts  of  Paul's  travels,  there  is  fuller  and,  some- 
times, more  accurate  information  than  in  the  earlier 
chapters  of  the  book. 

(2)    First  and  Second  Corinthians,  Romans. 

Read  the  epistles  rapidly,  noting  :  (1)  any  references 
that  help  to  connect  them  with  the  narrative  of  Acts; 
(2)  any  light  that  they  tlirow  upon  the  movements  of 
Paul  in  this  period  ;  (3)  indications  as  to  the  circum- 
stances, experiences,  and  character  of  the  Christian  com- 
munities in  Corinth,  Rome,  and  Ephesus. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  authorship  and  occasion  of 
First  and  Second  Corinthians,  see :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  360-365,  367-370;  B. 
Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  I.,  pages  251-269,  278-282  ;  Bur- 
ton, "Records  and  Letters  of  Apos.  Age,"  pages  216- 
221 ;  Hast.,  "  Diet.  Bib.."  I.,  pages  483-487,  491-497  ; 
Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  80-84,  87-95  ;  Jliliclicr, 
"  int.  N.  T.,  "  pages  78-102  ;  von  Soden,  "Hist.  Early 
Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  35-56  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  899- 
907.  All  of  the  a])ove  treat  First  and  Second  Corin- 
thians as  genuine  writings  of  Paul. 


198     EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE 

It  is  generally  held  that  First  Corinthians,  6^,  refers 
to  a  letter  otherwise  unknown,  written  by  the  apostle 
in  regard  to  the  matter  of  immorality,  and  antedating 
our  first  epistle. 

Bennett  and  Adeney,  Bacon,  and  von  Soden  advo- 
cate the  view,  now  widely  held,  that  in  Second  Corin- 
thians 10^-13^0  we  have  a  letter  written  between  First 
Corinthians  and  Second  Corinthians  1-9,  referred  to  in 
Second  Corinthians  2^.  Robertson,  in  Hastings,  does 
not  incline  to  this  view,  while  Sanday,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.," 
and  Jiilicher  oppose  it.  Burton  speaks  of  an  interme- 
diate letter  as  lost,  and  Weiss  argues  that  there  never 
was  such  a  letter.  Probably,  however,  Paul  wrote  on 
four  different  occasions,  at  this  period,  to  the  Corin- 
thian church. 

For  authorship  and  occasion  of  Romans,  see  :  Ben- 
nett and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  378-882  ;  B.  Weiss, 
"  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  293-307 ;  Burton,  "  Records  and 
Letters  of  Apost.  Age,"  pages  221,  222  ;  Hast.,  "  Diet. 
Bib.,"  pages  295-299,  804,  §  vii. ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.," 
pages  95-97,  98-105  ;  Jiilicher,  ''  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages 
106-118;  von  Soden,  "Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.," 
pages  71-97;  "Enc.  Bib.,"  IV.,  cols.  4127-4145.  Of 
the  foregoing,  all  except  Robertson,  in  Hastings,  Bur- 
ton, and  van  Manen,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  treat  16^"^*^  as 
not  properljr  a  part  of  the  Roman  epistle,  but  as,  either 
an  independent  letter  of  commendation,  or  a  part  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  Robertson  opposes  these 
views.^  Burton  does  not  discuss  the  question,  and  the 
subject  does  not  concern  the  discussion  of  van  Manen, 
who  denies  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  entire  book. 

1  For    fuller    presentation    of    opposinc;    arguments,    see    Sanday, 
"Romans,"  in  "Inter.  Crit.  Com.,"  pages  xciii-xcv,  418-431. 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  199 

Aside  from  this  last  article  all  of  the  foregoing  discus- 
sions treat  the  epistle  as  the  writing  of  Paul. 

2.  G-eneral  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  Bart- 
let,  "  Apost.  Age,"  pages  120-159;  Votaw,  "Apost. 
Age,"  chs.  viii.,  ix.  ;  McGiffert,  "Hist,  of  Chsty.  in 
Apost.  Age,"  pages  275-340  ;  Weizsacker,  "  Apost.  Age 
of  Chstn.  Church,"  I.,  pages  318-405,  II.,  p.  13  ;  Ramsay, 
"  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pages  265-303.  While  read- 
ing, note  :  (1)  the  revisiting  of  Galatia  ;  (2)  Paul's  work 
in  Ephesus,  its  nature  and  the  extent  of  its  influence  in 
the  province  of  Asia ;  (3)  Paul's  perils  and  sufferings 
in  Ephesus ;  (4)  evil  developments  in  the  Corinthian 
church  ;  (5)  Paul's  relations  with  the  church  of  Corinth 
during  the  Asian  mission  ;  (6)  later  favorable  develop- 
ments in  Corinth  ;  (7)  the  revisiting  of  Macedonia ; 
(8)  the  revisiting  of  Greece ;  (9)  the  great  collection  for 
the  Jerusalem  church ;  (10)  events  and  route  of  PauTs 
journey  to  Jerusalem  ;  (11)  companions  of  Paul  at  this 
time. 

3.  Literature  of  the  Time. 

(1)    First  Corinthians. 

a.  Form  and  Thought.  jNIake  an  outline  of  the 
epistle,  guided  by  the  paragraph  divisions,  expressing  in 
writing  the  idea  of  each  paragraph.  Notice  the  dis- 
continuous character  of  the  letter,  and  determine  its 
main  divisions.  Consider  in  detail:  (1)  the  need  of 
such  a  letter  of  counsel  in  view  of  church  difliculties 
and  problems  at  Corinth;  (2)  the  themes  which  the 
apostle  discussed;  (3)  the  case  which  needed  discii)l'n- 
ary  action ;  (4)  the  method  l)y  which  Paul  solved  (lie 
problems. 


200      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

b.  Personality  of  the  Writer.  What  does  the  letter 
teach  us  about  Paul  ? 

c.  Literary  Value.  Notice  the  passages  of  unusual 
forcefulness  or  beauty. 

(2)  Second  Corinthians. 

a.  Form  and  Thought.  (1)  Make  an  outline  of  the 
epistle  indicating  the  thought  of  each  paragraph,  and 
showing  the  principal  divisions  into  which  it  naturally 
falls.  (2)  Consider  whether  the  sections  Q^'^-7^  and 
10^-131'^  could  have  been  in  the  original  epistle,  in  view 
of  the  disconnection  of  thought  and  change  of  tone. 

b.  Personality  of  the  Writer.  Note  :  (1)  Paul's  view 
of  the  work  of  the  ministry,  as  shown  in  this  letter ; 
(2)  the  criticisms  under  wiiich  he  smarted;  (3)  bis 
impassioned  self-defence. 

c.  Value  as  Literature.  Note  the  great  passages 
and  their  force. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  specific  passages  in  these 
epistles,  reference  may  be  made  to :  Edwards,  "  First 
Cors."  ;  Massie,  in  "  Corinthians,"  "  New-Century  Bib."  ; 
Findlay  and  Bernard,  in  "  Expos.  Gk.  Test. ,"  Vols.  II. 
and  III. 

(3)    Romans. 

a.  Contents  and  Classification.  Make  an  outline  of 
the  epistle,  guided  in  the  main  by  the  paragraphs 
of  the  Revised  Version,  putting  the  thought  of  each 
paragraph  into  a  sentence.  Then  classify  the  mate- 
rial, giving  a  general  heading  to  each  of  the  divisions : 
V-'i,  1^-1',  118-511,  512-8^9,  9-11  of  the  doctrinal  sec- 
tion, chs.  1-11  and  to  the  corresponding  divisions :  12, 
13,  14l-15l^  151^^-33^  16  of  the  practical  section,  chs. 
12-16. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  201 

b.  General  Features.  Consider:  (1)  the  close  rela- 
tionship between  Galatians  and  Romans.  Which  argu- 
ment seems  more  final  ?  (2)  the  orderly  development 
of  thought  in  Romans.  Is  it  properly  termed  a  "  let- 
ter" ?  (3)  the  striking  analogies  and  figures  of  speech 
used  by  Paul.  Are  they  as  forceful  to-day  as  they 
were  when  used  ?  (4)  the  end  accomplished  by  the 
epistle. 

c.  Personality  of  the  Writer.  Note :  (1)  the  range 
of  Paul's  missionary  purpose  ;  (2)  his  deep  and  tender 
love  for  historic  Judaism ;  (3)  practical  good  sense  in 
dealing  with  Christian  needs ;  (4)  his  proper  rank  as  a 
constructive  thinker. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  this  epistle,  reference  may  be 
made  to  Sanday  and  Hcadlam,  "  Romans  "  in  "  Internat. 
Crit.  Com." 

(4)  The  Four  Epistles  of  the  Anti-Judaizing  Conflict 
and  the  Inner  Life  of  Christianity. 

(1)  What  contributions  did  each  epistle  make  to  the 
doctrinal  development  of  Christian  thinking?  (2)  Con- 
sider as  factors  in  Paul's  preparation  for  leadership: 
(a)  his  early  training  and  experience ;  (b)  the  ele- 
ments of  his  conversion  experience ;  (c)  the  conditions 
met  in  the  newly  founded  churches ;  (d)  the  condi- 
tions created  by  the  Judaizers.  (3)  Consider  what  it 
meant  for  a  Jew  to  ally  himself  with  Christianity  ;  for 
a  pagan  to  do  so,  as  the  facts  may  be  gathered  from 
these  epistles.  (4)  In  the  fierce  struggle  which  the 
epistles  reveal,  wliat  permanent  results  were  attained  ? 

C.  Tlic  Church  in  Rome  (Paul  in  Jerusalem,  Caesa- 
rea,  and  Rome  ;  Peter  in  Rome). 


202      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

1.    Sources. 

(1)  Acts  21i"-28.  (1)  Read  the  section  and  make  an 
outline  of  its  contents,  noting  carefully  the  geographical 
background  of  the  narrative.  (2)  Summarize  in  writ- 
ing Paul's  speeches. 

Arguments  bearing  upon  the  sources  and  reliability 
of  this  portion  of  Acts,  as  well  as  chapters  l-21i'^,  were 
included  in  the  discussions  named  under  §§  49,  1,  (1) 
and  50,  B,  1,  (1). 

(2)  The  Book  of  Acts  as  an  History. 

a.  Plan  and  Purpose.  Review  summaries  of  the 
Acts  made  under  §§  49,  1,  (1),  50,  A,  1,  (1),  B,  1,  (1), 
C,  1,  (1),  and  try  to  define  the  general  plan  and  purpose 
of  the  historian  who  shaped  the  whole. 

b.  Literary  Character  of  Speeches.  Compare  sum- 
maries of  speeches  of  Peter,  Stephen,  and  Paul,  made 
under  the  same  sections,  and  consider  whether  these 
speeches  show  enough  differences  in  thought  for  us  to 
account  them  as  the  substance  of  what  the  three  men 
really  said. 

c.  Sources.  Review  what  was  noted  as  to  the 
probable  sources  of  Acts  under  the  sections  named 
above,  (2),  a. 

d.  Authorship  and  Date.  Reference  should  be  made 
to  two  or  more  of  the  following  discussions,  one  of 
which  should  be  from  the  first  four  and  one  from  the 
last  four :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
341,  342  ;  B.  Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  II.,  pages  332-355  ; 
Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  pages  29,  30  ;  Ramsay,  "  St. 
Paul  the  Traveller,"  pages  383-390  ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N. 
T.,"  pages  211-220,  225-229 ;  Jiilicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.," 
pages  433-436 ;  von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.," 


THE   APOSTOLIC  AGE  203 

pages  211,  226-237;  "  Eiic.  Bib.,"  I.,  cols.  48,  49. 
All  agree  that  the  author  of  the  Third  Gospel  and 
the  author  of  Acts  are  the  same.  The  first  four 
maintain  that  this  is  Luke,  and  date  the  book  not  far 
from  80  a.  d.  The  last  four  admit  the  Lucan  author- 
ship of  only  the  travel-diary  document  and  assign  the 
book  as  a  whole  to  the  very  close  of  the  first  or  open- 
ing of  the  second  century.  The  close  connection  of 
one's  decision  as  to  the  date  and  authorship  of  the  book 
with  one's  estimate  of  the  historical  trustworthiness  of 
the  entire  work  may  be  noticed  in  a  comparison  of  the 
foregoing  references  with  the  similar  list  under  §  49, 
1,  (1).  For  discussion  of  specific  passages  in  Acts, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Knowling,  "  Acts,"  in  "  Expos. 
Gk.  Test.,"  Vol.  II. ;  Bartlet,  "  The  Acts,"  in  "  New- 
Century  Bib.  "  ;  Page,  "  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 

(3)  The  Epistles  of  the  Imprisonment.  Philemon, 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philippians. 

Note  the  following  data :  in  Philemon,  (1)  Paul's 
situation  and  companions,  vv.  1,  9,  23 ;  (2)  occasion 
of  letter,  vv.  12,  15,  16;  (3)  Paul's  plans,  v.  22;  in 
Colossians,  (1)  reference  to  Onesimus,  4^ ;  (2)  Paul's 
situation  and  companions,  1^  4^^^'^''^^ ;  (3)  Paul's  mes- 
sengers to  the  Colossians,  4"~^ ;  (4)  Epaphras  had  been 
among  the  Colossians,  1" ;  (5)  former  condition  of  the 
people,  1^1 ;  (6)  indication  as  to  whether  Paul  had  ever 
visited  them,  2^ ;  (7)  the  letter  to  Laodiceans,  4^*^ ;  in 
Ephesians,  (1)  the  letter  sent  in  connection  with  Col- 
ossians, 6^1 ;  (2)  Paul's  situation,  3^,  6^0.  (3)  indica- 
tions that  Paul  had  not  preached  among  the  readers, 
32,3^  421.  ^4)  absence  of  greetings  from  Timothy  and 
Aristarchus  who  were  with  Paul  at  the  time  of  writing 


204      EAIILY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

and  had  been  at  Ephesus,  Col.  l^,  4^0,  Acts  1922.9 .  j^ 
Philippians,  (1)  Paul's  situation  I'.i3,i4,i7,  418  •  (2)  Paul's 
companions  and  helpers,  1^  2^^^^^^^^,  4''^2  ^  ^3^  Paul's  re- 
lations  with  the  Philippian  Christians,  l^-^  2i2>i9,24,25,^ 

41,15,16,18_ 

For  discussion  of  the  authorship  and  occasion  of 
these  epistles,  sec :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.," 
pages  387-405  ;  B.  Weiss,  "  N.  T.  Int.,""^!.,  pages  323- 
830,  335-342,  352-355,  360-363,  365-369;  Burton, 
"  Records  and  Letters  Apost.  Age,"  pages  222-224  ; 
Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  I.,  arts.  "  Colossians "  and 
"Ephesians,"  HI.,  arts.  "Philemon"  and  "Philip- 
pians" ;  Bacon,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  107, 113-115,  122, 
123  ;  Jlilicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  118-127,  130-147  ; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  art.  "Colossians  and  Ephesians"; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  III.,  arts.  "  Philemon  "  and  "  Philippi- 
ans " ;  von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages 
97-100,  106-109, 114-120,  290-305.  Of  the  foregoing, 
the  first  five  regard  all  these  epistles  as  genuine  writ- 
ings of  Paul,  Jlilicher,  in  "  Intro."  and  "  Enc.  Bib.," 
leaves  Pauline  authorship  of  Ephesians,  and,  perhaps, 
Colossians,  an  open  question,  while  van  Manen,  in  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  denies  the  Pauline  authorship  of  Philemon  and 
Philippians,  as  he  does  of  all  the  epistles.  Von  Soden 
counts  all  but  Ephesians  as  genuine  writings  of  Paul. 
Most  of  those  who  acknowledge  the  Pauline  author- 
ship of  the  epistles  of  this  group  favor  Rome  as  the 
place  of  writing.  B.  Weiss,  however,  assigns  Colos- 
sians, Philemon,  and  Ephesians  to  the  Caesarean  im- 
prisonment. Those  who  accept  the  Pauline  authorship 
of  Ephesians  usually  regard  it  as  a  circular  letter,  rather 
than  one  destined  for  a  particular  church. 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  205 

(4)  The  Pastoral  Epistles.  First  and  Second  Tim- 
othy, Titus. 

Note  the  following  points :  in  First  Tim.,  Paul  seems 
to  have  gone  from  Ephesus  to  Macedonia  leaving  Tim- 
othy in  Ephesus,  l^,  cf.  Acts  IS^^  21^1922^  2  Cor.  l,i  Acts 
20* ;  in  Second  Tim.,  (1)  places  which  Paul  has  re- 
cently visited,  4^3'^°  ;  (2)  Paul's  present  situation,  1^", 
41c,  18-1^  2^-^,  4'^'9-i3,2i;  in  Titus,  Paul's  movements,  1^, 
3^.  Can  these  epistles  be  fitted  into  the  course  of 
Paul's  journeys  as  gathered  from  Acts  and  the  other 
epistles  ? 

For  references  concerning  the  men  Timothy  and 
Titus,  see :  Acts  IG^-s,  1  Thess.  li,  2  Thess.  V,  Rom. 
1621,  2  Cor.  11,  Philip.  11,  Col.  11,  Philemon  li.  Gal. 
21-*,  2  Cor.  212-13,  1%  S%  12i». 

For  discussion  as  to  the  authorship  and  occasion  of 
these  epistles,  see:  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.," 
pages  406-415,  17,  18,  19 ;  B.  Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  I., 
pages  376-378,  382-389,  409-420;  Burton,  "Records 
and  Letters  Apost.  Age,"  pages  224-226  ;  Hastings, 
"  Diet.  Bib.,"  IV.,  arts.,  "  1  Timothy,"  "  2  Timothy," 
"Titus"  ;  Bacon,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  127,  128,132- 
140 ;  JUlicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  174-200  ;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  IV.,  art.  "  Timotliy  and  Titus,  Epists.  of"; 
von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  310-323. 
Of  the  foregoing,  the  first  four  favor  the  Pauline  au- 
thorship of  these  epistles,  though  admitting  grave  dilli- 
culties  in  maintaining  this  position.  They  place  the 
writing  of  First  Timothy  and  Titus  after  a  supposed 
release  of  Paul  from  the  Roman  imprisonment,  and  of 
Second  Timothy  after  a  reimprisonment.  The  last  four 
deny  the  Pauline  authorship,  though,  in   some  cases, 


206      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

holding  that  the  epistles  contain  genuine  Pauline 
fragments. 

(5)  The  First  Epistle  of  Peter. 

Note  the  following  data  in  First  Peter  :  (1)  the  author, 
11,  51 ;  (2)  his  associates,  S^^^is :  (3)  place  of  writing, 
513;  (4)  the  persons  addressed  P,  Jews  or  Gentiles? 
114.18,  29,w  36^  43^  their  condition,  3i*'is  412-19,  5W 

For  discussion  of  the  authorship  and  occasion  of 
First  Peter,  see  :  Bennett  and  Adeney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages 
440-445  ;  B.  Weiss,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  II.,  pages  137-144, 
146-154 ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  153-158  ;  Hast- 
ings, "Diet.  Bib.,"  III.,  art.  "Peter,  First  Epist.  of"; 
Jiilicher,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  207-215;  von  Soden, 
"Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  275-284;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  III.,  art.  "  Peter,  Epists.  of."  Of  the  foregoing, 
the  first  four  favor  the  view  that  this  is  a  genuine 
epistle  of  Peter.  B.  Weiss  would  place  its  writing 
before  Paul's  work  in  Ephesus ;  Chase,  in  Hastings, 
regards  it  as  written  from  Rome,  shortly  after  Paul's 
supposed  release.  Bennett  and  Adeney  place  it  after 
Paul's  death.  Jiilicher,  von  Soden,  and  Cone,  in  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  reject  the  Petrine  authorship  and  place  these 
epistles  at  least  as  late  as  the  persecution  of  Domitian, 
92-96  A.  D. 

(6)  Traditions  concerning  Paul  and  Peter  in  Rome. 
For  a  summary  presentation  and  discussion  of  the 

various  early  traditions  concerning  Paul  and  Peter 
in  Rome  and  their  martyrdom  there,  see  McGiffert, 
"Apost.  Age,"  pages  416,  421,  591,  592. 

2.    General  Discussion  of  the  History. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references: 
Bartlet,    "Apost.    Age,"    pages    160-202,    297-308; 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  207 

Votaw,  "  Apost.  Age,"  chs.  x-xii ;  McGiffert,  "Hist. 
Chsty.  in  Apost.  Age,"  pages  338-439,  588-60G ; 
Weizsacker,  "  Apost.  Age,"  II.,  pages  115-155.  While 
reading,  note :  (1)  causes  of  Paul's  arrest  in  Jerusa- 
lem;  (2)  circumstances  leading  to  his  removal  to 
Caesarea  ;  (3)  problem  as  to  the  date  of  Caesarean 
imprisonment  and  its  bearing  upon  the  chronology  of 
Paul's  entire  career;  (4)  the  visit  of  Agrippa  ;  who 
was  he  ?  (5)  circumstances  leading  to  Paul's  removal 
to  Rome ;  (6)  route  and  events  of  the  journey  to 
Rome ;  (7)  conditions  of  Paul's  life  in  Rome ;  (S)  ar- 
guments for  and  against  the  theory  of  a  release  and 
reimprisonment ;  (9)  probable  date  and  immediate 
occasion  of  Paul's  death  ;  (10)  evidence  that  the  close 
of  Peter's  life  was  spent  in  Rome  ;  (11)  date  of  Peter's 
coming  to  Rome,  in  relation  to  that  of  Paul's  death  ; 
(12)  any  knowledge  of  Peter's  life  between  the  glimpse 
of  him  at  Antioch,  given  in  Galatians,  and  his  coming 
to  Rome ;  (13)  relation  of  Peter  to  the  churches  of 
Asia  Minor;  (14)  probable  time  and  occasion  of 
Peter's  death. 

Review  the  principal  steps  in  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity through  the  Graeco-Roman  world,  during  the 
period  of  Gentile  missions,  from  about  44-64  a.  d. 

3.    Literature  of  the  Time. 

(1)    Epistles  of  the  Imprisonment. 

a.  Philemon.  Read  the  epistle,  noting  :  (1)  its  reg- 
ular epistolary  form  ;  (2)  its  subject;  (3)  view  that  it 
gives  of  the  personality  of  Paul  in  his  intercourse 
with  a  friend ;    (4)   Paul's  cure  for  slavery. 

b,  Ephesians  and  Colossians.  Make  an  outline  of 
these    epistles,   guided    by    the    paragraphing    of    the 


208      EARLY    CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND   LITERATURE 

Revised  Version,  and  stating  the  thought  of  each 
paragraph  in  a  sentence.  Then  note  :  (1)  their  great 
similarity  in  outline,  thought,  and  phraseology ;  (2)  the 
development  of  Paul's  interpretation  of  the  significance 
of  Christ  ;  (3)  the  false  teaching  against  which  Paul 
contends  in  Colossians  ;  (4)  the  practical  helpfulness  of 
each  epistle. 

c.  Philippians.  Make  a  similar  outline,  noting  :  (1) 
warning  against  Jewish  influences;  (2)  emphasis  on 
growth  in  Christian  character  ;  (3)  impression  of  Paul's 
personal  traits  given  by  this  epistle. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  specific  passages  in  these 
epistles,  reference  may  he  made  to :  Vincent,  "  Phi- 
lippians and  Philemon,"  in  "  Internat.  Crit.  Com.  " ; 
Lightfoot,  "  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and 
to  Philemon,"  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  "  ; 
Abbott,  "  Ephesians  and  Colossians,"  in  "  Internat.  Crit. 
Com." ;  Robinson,  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians ;  Salmond,  "  Ephesians,"  in  "  Expos.  Gk.  Test.," 
Vol.  III.;  Kennedy,  "Philippians,"  in  "Expos.  Gk. 
Test.,"  Vol.  III. ;  Peake,  "  Colossians,"  in  '•  Expos.  Gk. 
Test.,"  Vol.  III. 

(2)  The  Pastoral  Epistles. 

Make  outlines  of  First  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Second 
Timothy,  as  for  other  epistles.  Note  :  (1)  the  evident  pur- 
pose of  each  ;  (2)  the  remarkable  sayings  included. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  specific  passages,  reference 
may  be  made  to  Bernard,  "  Pastoral  Epistles,"  in 
"Camb.  Gk.  Test." 

(3)  First  Peter. 

a.  Form  and  Thought.  Make,  as  usual,  an  outline 
of  First  Peter,  and  note :  (1)  its  general  structure  in 


THE   APOSTOLIC  AGE  209 

comparison  with  that  of  the  Pauline  epistles;  (2) 
thoughts  chietiy  emphasized ;  (3)  similarities  and 
differences  between  the  thought  of  tliis  epistle  and 
the  thought  of  Paul. 

b.  Personality  of  the  "Writer.  Revievy  the  epistle, 
noting :  (1)  any  passages  that  seem  to  reflect  Peter's 
early  experiences ;  (2)  impression  given  of  the  aged 
apostle,  in  contrast  to  the  portrait  of  Peter  given  in  the 
Gospels  and  Acts. 

(4)  Matthew's  Logia.     See  §  46,  2,  (b). 

§  51.   Later  Apostolic  Age  (c.  64-100  a.  d.) 

1 .  Sources, 

In  the  absence  of  any  early  connected  account  of  the 
later  apostolic  age,  we  must  form  our  picture  of  the 
times  largely  from  incidental  references  in  the  writings 
of  the  period,  allusions  much  less  numerous  and  defi- 
nite than  those  in  the  Pauline  epistles.  When  studying 
the  Jewish  history  too  (§  45),  we  were  unable  to  obtain 
any  connected  view  of  events  for  a  large  part  of  this 
period.  Thus  there  arc  few  chronological  landmarks 
by  which  to  assign  the  literature  of  the  times  to  any 
exact  dates.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70  a.  d.) 
and  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of 
Domitian  (died  96  a.  d.)  are  the  principal  points  from 
which  to  reckon.  Such  light  as  the  contem[)orary 
literature  does  throw  upon  the  period  will  bo  noticed, 
while  reading  the  books  with  special  reference  to  their 
literary  form  and  thought. 

2.  Later  lUatory  of  the  Jerusalem  Chureh. 

Read  one  or  moi-e  of  the  following  references :  Mc- 
Giffert,  "  Hist.  Chsty.  in  Apost.  Age,"  pages  557-568 ; 

14 


210      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

Weizsacker,  "  Apo^>.^  „  ^Age,"  IL,  pages  15-32;  Ropes, 
"Apost.  Age,"  pc,geo  90-98.  While  reading,  note:  (1) 
absence  of  fu,ll  separation  of  the  Jerusalem  church  from 
Judaism  :  (2)  the  apparently  peaceful  relations  between 
the  Jerusalem  Jews  and  Jewish  Christians  from  44  to 
62  A.  D.;  (3)  martyrdom  of  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus  ; 
(4)  migration  of  the  Christians  from  Jerusalem,  daring 
the  war;  (5)  their  subsequent  return  to  Judca ;  (6) 
ultimate  fate  of  Jewish  Christianity. 

3.    The  Epistle  to  the  HehrPAVS. 

Outline  the  epistle  as  usual,  briefly  summarizing  its 
contents  under  the  following  headings  : 

Christ  Supreme  1-4 

Christ  the  Great  High  Priest  5-7 

Superiority  of  His  Worship  8-10 

Faith  and  Perse ve^-ance  11,  12 

Conclusion  13. 

In  reading,  note:  (1)  the  aim  of  the  book;  (2)  the 
coherency  of  its  argument ;  (3)  its  rhetorical  merits ; 
(4)  Pauline  thoughts  ;  (5)  resemblances  to  the  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  and  other  Alexandrian  writino's. 

For  discussion  of  date,  authorship,  destination,  and 
purpose,  reference  may  be  made  to :  Bennett  and 
Adeney,  "  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  421-433  ;  B.  Weiss,  "  Int. 
N.  T.,"  II.,  pages  1-44 ;  Burton,  "  Records  and  Letters 
of  Apost.  Age,"  page  228  ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib."  IL, 
art.  "  Hebrews,  Epist.  to  "  ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages 
141-149  ;  Moffatt,  "  Historical  N.  T.,"  pages  344-351  ; 
von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early  Clistn.  Lit.,"  pages  248-272; 
"  Enc.  Bib.,"  IL,  art.  "  Hebrews  "  ;  Jlilicher,  pages  148- 
174.     Of  the  foregoing,  the  first  four  incline  to  the 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  211 

widely  held  view  that  the  epistle  ^  .vritten  before  the 
year  70,  either  shortly  before  or  duiing  the  Jewish 
War.  The  others  favor  a  date  considerably  later,  but 
all  place  it  not  later  than  95  a.  d.,  before  the  Epistle  of 
Clement  of  Rome. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  specific  passages,  reference 
may  be  made  to :  Westcott,  "  The  Epist.  to  Hebs. "  ; 
Peake,  "Hebrews,"  in  "New-Century  Bib." 

4.  Tlie  jSi/noptic  Grospels  and  Acts. 

See  §§46  and  49. 

5.  The  Apocalypse. 

Read  the  book  of  Revelation  under  the  following 
outline : 

Introduction  1-3 

Address  and  salutation  1^"^ 

The  prophet's  call  1^-20 

The  letters  to  the  seven  churches        2-3 
Vision  of  the  Book  of  Destiny      4-11 

The  seven  seals  4-8^ 

The  seven  trumpets  8--11 

Vision  of  the  War  against  the 

Dragon  '  12-18 

Woman  and  dragon,  beasts,  lamb, 

and  redeemed  12-14 

The  seven  bowls  (vials)  15-18 

Vision  of  the  Heavenly  Jerusa- 
lem 19-226 
Coming  of  bridegroom  and  destruc- 
tion of  enemies  19-20 
The  Heavenly  Jerusalem  21-22^ 
Epilogue                                           22«  21 


212      EARLY  CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

In  reading,  note  :  (1)  the  geographical  situation  of 
the  seven  churches ;  (2)  the  allusions  in  11^'''^,  17^*^,  which 
are  often  thought  to  indicate  a  date  prior  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  for  the  composition  of  the  book,  con- 
trary to  tradition  as  old  as  Irenaeus,  which  dates  the 
book  in  the  reign  of  Domitian ;  (3)  form  and  spirit  of 
the  book  in  comparison  with  the  apocalypses  read  in 
Part  III.,  noting  resemblances,  and  also  any  elements 
that  differentiate  this  Christian  apocalypse  from  those 
Jewish  ones. 

For  discussion  of  the  occasion,  authorship,  character, 
and  purpose  of  the  book,  see  :  Porter,  "  Messages  of  the 
Apoc.  Writers,"  pages  169-194  ;  Scott,  "  Revelation,"  in 
"  New-Century  Bib.,"  pages  1-76  ;  Bennett  and  Adeney, 
"  Bib.  Int.,"  pages  460-468  ;  B.  Weiss, "  Int.  N.  T.,"  II., 
pages  59-88 ;  Burton,  "  Records  and  Letters  Apost. 
Age,"  page  229;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib,,"  IV.,  art. 
"  Revelation,  Bk.  of  "  ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  230- 
244  ;  Moffatt,  "  Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  469-475  ;  Jiilicher, 
"  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  261-291  ;  von  Soden,  "  Hist.  Early 
Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  338-374;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  I.,  art. 
"Apocalypse."  Of  the  foregoing.  Burton  and  Weiss 
would  place  the  composition  of  the  book  between  the 
death  of  Nero  (a.  d.  68)  and  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (a.  d. 
70),  on  the  ground  of  the  allusions  which  almost  indis- 
putably imply  this  period.  All  the  others  find  much 
evidence  supporting  the  traditional  date  (the  latter  part 
of  Domitian's  reign)  and  so  hold  that,  though  the  book 
embodies  material  dating  from  before  the  year  70,  it 
was  not  composed  in  its  entirety  till  the  later  date. 
For  the  composite  character  of  other  apocalyptic  litera- 
ture, cf.  Enoch  or  Baruch, 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  213 

6.  John  and  the  Church  of  Asia. 

Read  one  or  more  of  the  following  references  :  ^[c- 
Giffert,  "  Hist,  of  Chsty.  in  Apost.  Age,"  pages  606- 
627;  Weizsacker,  "  Apost.  Age.,"  IL,  pages  161-245; 
Bartlet,  "  Apost.  Age,"  pages  418-441 ;  Votaw, 
"  Apost.  Age."  ch.  xii.  While  reading,  note  espe- 
cially :  (1)  silence  concerning  John  from  the  time  of 
Paul's  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  2^)  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  first  century  ;  (2)  strength  of  the  evidence 
for  John's  presence  and  influence  in  Ephesus ;  (3) 
approximate  time  of  John's  death. 

7.  Tlie  Johannine  Epistles. 

(1)  First  John. 

Make  a  written  outline  of  the  epistle,  noting  also  :  (1) 
any  references  that  give  information  about  the  author 
or  recipients :  (2)  errors  which  threaten  the  church ; 
(3)  general  spirit  and  thought  of  the  epistle,  especially 
in  comparison  with  the  Fourth  Gospel. 

(2)  Second  John. 

Make  a  written  outline  of  the  epistle,  noting  also :  (1) 
indications  as  to  the  author  ;  (2)  errors  which  threaten 
the  church  ;  (3)  object  of  the  letter. 

(3)  Third  John. 

Make  a  written  outline  of  the  epistle,  noting  also  :  (1) 
indications  as  to  the  author ;  (2)  purpose  of  writing. 

For  discussion  of  the  occasion,  authorship,  purpose, 
and  character  of  these  epistles,  see :  Bennett  and 
Adcney,  "Bib.  Int.,"  pages  452-459;  B.  Weiss,  "Int. 
N.  T.,"  II.,  pages  174-202  ;  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bib,,"  IL, 
art.  "  John,  Eps.  of"  ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  244- 


214      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE 

250 ;  Moffatt,  «  Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  534-539,  546,  548  ; 
Jiilicher,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  241-255;  von  Soden, 
"  Hist.  Early  Clistn.  Lit,"  pages  374-389  ;  "  Enc.  Bib.," 
II.,  cols.  2556-2562,  All  of  the  above  discussions 
recognize  the  kinship  of  these  epistles  with  one  another 
and  with  the  Fourth  Gospel,  but  they  differ  as  to  the 
assignment  of  all  four  to  absolutely  the  same  hand. 
So  far  as  an  attempt  at  dating  these  epistles  is  made, 
none  of  the  foregoing  put  them  earlier  than  the  year 
90,  and  nearly  all  favor  a  date  after  the  Domitian  per- 
secution. Moffatt,  Jiilicher,  and  Schmiedel,  in  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  advocate  a  date  after  the  close  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. The  epistles  are  usually  regarded  as  antedating 
the  Gospel,  but  indications  on  this  point  are  very  slight 
and  MofFatt  puts  the  Gospel  first. 

For  aid  in  interpreting  specific  passages,  reference 
may  be  made  to  Plummer,  "  Epists.  of  St.  John,"  in 
"  Camb.  Gk.  Test."  or  Wescott,  "  Epistle  of  John." 

8.  The  Grospel  of  John. 

This  book  was  read  and  discussed  as  an  historical 
source  for  the  life  of  Jesus  under  §  46,  and  as  a  piece 
of  literature,  under  §  48. 

9.  The  Epistle  of  James. 

Make  an  outline  of  the  epistle,  following  the  para- 
graph divisions  and  putting  into  a  sentence  the  thought 
of  each  paragraph.  Note  also :  (1)  any  indications  of 
the  circumstances  and  conditions  which  lie  behind  it ; 
(2)  leading  thoughts  and  the  spirit  of  the  writer ;  (3) 
relation  of  thought  to  that  of  Paul. 

For  discussion  of  the  occasion,  authorship,  purpose, 
and  character  of  the  epistle,  see :  Bennett  and  Adeney 


THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE  215 

"Bib.  Int.,"  pages  434-440;  B.  Weiss,  "Int.  N.  T.," 
IL,  pages  100-118  ;  Burton,  "  Records  and  Letters 
Apost.  Age,"  page  208 ;  Hastings,  "  Diet.  Bib.,"  II., 
art.  "  James,  Ep.  of"  ;  Bacon,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  158- 
165  ;  Moffatt,  "  Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  576-583  ;  Jlilicher, 
"Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  215-229;  von  Soden,  "Hist. 
Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  463-470 ;  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  II., 
art.  "  James,  Ep." 

It  is  usually  held  that,  either  (1)  the  Epistle  of 
James  was  written  by  James  the  brother  of  Jesus,  not 
later  than  the  year  50,  or  (2)  it  is  one  of  the  latest 
New  Testament  books.  Of  the  above,  the  first  four 
favor  the  former  view,  the  last  five  oppose.  Of  these. 
Bacon  dates  the  book  about  the  year  00,  the  others 
assign  it  to  the  second  century.  For  aid  in  interpret- 
ing specific  passages  in  this  epistle,  reference  may  be 
made  to  Knowling,  "  Epist.  of  St.  James,"  in  "  West- 
minster Com."  ;  Mayor,  "  Epist.  of  St.  James  "  ;  Carr, 
"  General  Epist.  of  St.  James." 

10.    The  Epistles  of  Jude  and  Second  Peter. 

Outline  the  epistles,  noting,  in  Jude :  (1)  the  writer's 
designation  of  himself;  (2)  his  allusion  to  the  Apostles 
as  former  teachers ;  (3)  false  teachings  that  have 
arisen  ;  (4)  the  relation  of  v.  6  with  Enoch  18^^^^, 
212-6,  of  vv.  14,  15  with  Enoch  1^,  5^,272;  in  Second 
Peter  (1)  the  writer's  designation  of  himself ;  (2) 
reference  to  Paul's  epistl(;s  ;  (3)  relation  to  Jude. 

For  discussion  of  the  authorship  and  occasion  of  Jude 
and  Second  Peter,  see:  Bennett  and  Adcncy,  "Bib. 
Int.,"  pages  447-452;  B.  Weiss,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  IL, 
pages  118-128,  154-174;  Burton,  "Records  and 
Letters    Apost.    Age,"     page    227;    Hastings,"  Diet. 


216      EARLY   CHRISTIAN   HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE 

Bib.,"  II.,  art.  "  Jude,  Epist.  of,"  III.,  art.  "  Peter,  Sec. 
Epist.  of";  Bacon,  "Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  166-173; 
Moffatt,  "Hist.  N.  T.,"  pages  589-593,  596-599; 
Jlilicher,  "  Int.  N.  T.,"  pages  229-241 ;  von  Soden, 
"Hist.  Early  Chstn.  Lit.,"  pages  470-476;  "  Enc. 
Bib.,"  II.,  art.  "Jude,  Epist.  of,"llL,  cols.  3682-3684. 
Of  these,  Bennett  and  Adeney,  Weiss,  Chase,  in 
Hast,  regard  Jude  as  written  by  a  brother  of  James 
the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  date  it  well  within  the  first 
century,  Burton  speaks  doubtfully  on  the  subject,  the 
others  oppose.  Bacon  dates  about  90,  while  Moffatt, 
Jlilicher,  von  Soden,  and  Cone,  in  "  Enc.  Bib.,"  ascribe 
it  to  the  second  century.  All,  except  Weiss  and  Bur- 
ton, consider  Second  Peter  a  pseudonymous  writing  of 
the  second  century.  Burton  and  Weiss  regard  the  book 
as  possibly  a  genuine  writing  of  Peter  the  Apostle. 


APPENDIX 

SELECTED   BIBLIOGRAPHY 


APPENDIX 

SELECTED   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  list  contains  only  books  to  wliicli  refer- 
ence is  made  iu  the  present  volume.  Classified  bibliog- 
raphies of  books  of  reference  for  Old  Testament  study 
are  appended  to  Kent's  "Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History," 
"  Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical  Narratives  "  and  the 
other  volumes  of  the  "  Student's  Old  Testament."  Brief 
critical  bibliographies  are  appended  to  the  several  volumes 
of  the  present  series.  Many  other  of  the  works  named 
below  give  valuable  lists  of  references  for  the  subjects 
with  which  they  deal.  In  the  ''  Biblical  World  "  of  October, 
1905,  Professor  Votaw  has  given  an  invaluable  classified 
and  critical  list  of  "  Books  for  New  Testament  Study." 

Abuott,   T.    K.  :    "  Ephesiaus  and  Colossians,"  "International 

Critical    Commentary."       New   York  :    Charles    Scribner's 

Sons.     32.50. 
Anthony,  A.  W. :    "An   Introduction  to  the  Life  of  Jesus." 

Boston,  New  York,  Chicago:  Silver,  liurdett  and  Co.     -fl. 
"Apocrypha,"   "Old  Testament"   (Revised   Version,    Hritisli). 

New  York:  Thos.  Nelson  and  Sons.    Oxford  and  Cambridge: 

University  Presses.     ^.7b. 
Bacon,   B.  W.  :    "An    Introduction   to  the   New  Testament." 

New  York  and  London  :  Macmillau  and  Co.     $.7~). 
Bautlet,  Vkunon  :  "  The  Acts,''  "  (New-)  Centnry  Bible."    New 

York  and  London  :  Henry  Frowde.     $.90. 
Baktlkt,  Vkunon  :  "  The  Apostolic  Age."    New  York:  Charles 

Scribner's  Sons.     $2. 
Bauton,  G.   a.  :  "A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins."     New    Vuik 

and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3. 
Bf.nnkix-AK.il,  and    Adknkv,  W.    F.  :    "A    Biblical    Intro- 
duction."    New  York  :  Tlios.  Whittaker.     $2. 


220  APPENDIX 

Bennett,   W.   H.  :   "Chronicles,"   "Expositor's   Bible."     New 

York:  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     $1.50. 
Bernard,  J.  H.  :  "2  Corinthians,"  "Expositor's  Greek  Testa- 
ment," Vol.  III.     New  York :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.     $7.50 
per  vol. 
Bernard,  J.  H. :  "  The  Pastoral  Epistles,"  "  Cambridge  Greek 
Testament."      New    York   and    London:    Macmillan    and 
Co.     1.90. 
Be  VAN,  E. :   "Jerusalem  under  the  High  Priests."     London: 

Edward  Arnold.  7s.  6d. 
Bible:  "The  American  Standard  Edition  of  the  Revised  Ver- 
sion." New  York:  Thos.  Nelson  and  Sons.  Entire  Bible 
from  $.35  up ;  Bourgeois  type,  5^  by  8  in.,  cloth,  $1 ;  leather, 
$1.75  up.  New  Testament,  $.08  up. 
Bible:  "  British  Edition  of  the  Revised  Version."  Oxford  and 
Cambridge:  University  Presses.  New  York:  Thos.  Nelson 
and  Sons. 

Prices  similar  to  those  for  American  edition. 
"Biblical   World."      Chicago:    University   of    Chicago    Press. 

$2.  per  annum. 
Bigg,  Charles:  "Epistles  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Jude,"  "Inter- 
national Critical  Commentary."     New  York  :  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons.     $2.50. 
Breasted,  J.  H. :  "A  History  of  Egypt."     New  York  :  Charles 

Scribner's  Sons.     $5. 
Breasted,  J.  H.  :  "  History  of  the  Egyptians  "  (in  preparation). 

New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.25. 
Bruce,   A.  B.  :    "Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,"  "Expositor's  Greek 
Testament,"  Vol.  I.    New  York  :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.    $7.50 
per  vol. 
Burton,  E.  D.  :  "  Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age." 

New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.50. 
Carpenter,  J.  E.,  and  Battersby,  G.  H.  :  "The  Hexateuch 
accordintr  to  the  Revised  Version."     London  and  New  York : 
Longmans,  Green  and  Co.     2  vols.     $12. 
Carr,  Arthur:  "The  General  Epistle  of  St.  James,"  "Cam- 
bridge Greek  Testament."     New  York  and  London  :  Mac- 
millan and  Co.     $.65. 
Charles,  R.  H.  :  "  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch."     London:  A. 

and  C.  Black.     $2.75. 
Charles,  R.  H.  :   "The  Assumption  of  Moses."     London:  A. 
and  C.  Black.    $2.25. 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY  221 

Charles,  R.  H.  :  "The  Book  of  Enoch."  New  York:  Henry 
Frowde.     Oxford :  Clarendon  Press.     §4. 

Chase,  F.  H.  :  "  The  Credibility  of  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles."  New  York  and  London:  Macmillan  and  Co. 
81.75. 

Cheyxe,  T.  K.  :  "Jeremiah,  His  Life  and  Times,"  "  Men  of  the 
Bible  Series."    New  York  :  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  and  Co.   ^1. 

Cheyme,  T.  K.  :  "Job  and  Solomon,  or  the  Wisdom  of  the  Old 
Te.stament."  New  York:  Thos.  Whittaker.  London: 
Kegan  Paul,  Trench  and  Co.     ^2.50,  12.s.  6d. 

Cheyxe,  T.  K.  :  "Isaiah,"  "  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments."  New  Y^ork  :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.  Lon- 
don: J.  Clarke  and  Co.     $2.50. 

Cheyxe,  T.  K.  :  "  The  Book  of  Psalms."  New  York :  Thos. 
Whittaker.     88.20. 

Coberx,  C.  i\I.  :  "Ezekiel  and  Daniel,"  "Whedon's  Commen- 
tary."    New  York  :  Eaton  and  Mains.     $2. 

CoRxiLL,  C.  H. :  "  History  of  the  People  of  Israel."  Chicago  : 
Open  Court  Publishing  Co.  London :  Kegan  Paul,  Trench, 
Truebner  and  Co.     §L50. 

CoRxiLL,  C.  H. :  "Prophets  of  Israel."  Chicago:  Open  Court 
Publishing  Co.  London:  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Truebner, 
and  Co.     §1. 

Cox,  S. :  "The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,"  "Expositor's  Bible." 
New  York:  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     8L50. 

Davidson,  A.  B. :  "Book  of  Ezekiel,"  "Cambridge  Bible." 
Cambridge:  University  Press.     5s. 

Davidson,  A.  B.  :  "  Book  of  Job,"  "  Cambridge  Bible."  Cam- 
bridge :  University  Pi-ess.     5s. 

Davis,  J.  D.  "  Genesis  and  Semitic  Tradition."  New  York: 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     |1.,50. 

Delitzsch,  Friedrich:  "  liabcl  and  Bible."  Chicago:  Open 
Court  Publishing  Co.     ij.""). 

Doxehoo,  J.  De  Q. :  "  Apocryphal  and  Legendary  Life  of 
Christ."  New  York  and  Loudon:  Macmillan  and  Co. 
82.50. 

Driver,  S.  R.  :  "  Daniel,"  "  Cambridge  Bible."  Cambridge :  Uni- 
versity Press.  2s.  Gd. 
Driver,  S.  R.  :  "Deuteronomy,"  "International  Critical  Com- 
mentary." New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  $;}. 
Driver,  S.  R.  :  "  Genesis,"  "  Westminster  Commentaries," 
New  York:  Edwin  S.  Gorham.  London:  Methucu  and 
Co.     84. 


222  APPENDIX 

Driver,  S.  R.  :  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old 
Testament."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $2.50. 

Edwards,  T.  C.  :  "  Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians."  New  York :  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son. 
$2.50. 

'*  Encyclopaedia  Biblica."  New  York  and  London :  Macmillan 
and  Co.     4  vols.     $5  each. 

EwALD,  IL:  "The  History  of  Israel."  London:  Longmans, 
Green  and  Co.     8  vols.     $39.50. 

Farrar,  F.  W.  :  "Book  of  Daniel,"  "Expositor's  Bible." 
New  York  :  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     1.50. 

Farrar,  F.  W.  :  "  Minor  Prophets,"  "  Men  of  the  Bible  Series." 
New  York:  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  and  Co.     $1. 

FiNDLAY,  G.  G. :  "First  Corinthians,"  "Expositor's  Greek 
Testament,"  Vol.  II.  New  York  :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co. 
$7.. 50  per  vol. 

FiNDLAY,  G.  G.  "First  and  Second  Thessalonians,"  "Cam- 
bridge Greek  Testament."  New  York  and  London  :  Mac- 
millan and  Co.     -fl. 

Fowler,  H.  T.  :  "The  Prophets  as  Statesmen  and  Preachers." 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Chicago  :  The  Pilgrim  Press.     $.40. 

Genung,  J.  F. :  "  The  Epic  of  tlie  Inner  Life."  Boston  and 
New  York:  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.     $L25. 

Genung,  J.  F.  :  "  The  Words  of  Koheleth."  Boston  and  New 
York  :  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.     $L25. 

Geikie,  Cuningham.  "Hours  with  the  Bible."  New  York: 
James  Pott  and  Co.     6  vols.     $12.     Bound  as  three,  $7..50. 

Gilbert,  G.  H.  :  "The  Student's  Life  of  Jesus."  New  York 
and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $1.25. 

GooDSPEED,  G.  S.  :  "  A  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assy- 
rians."    New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.25. 

Gould,  E.  P.:  "  ]\Iark,"  "International  Critical  Commentary." 
New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $2.50. 

Graetz,  H.  :  "History  of  the  Jews."  Philadelphia:  Jewish 
Publication  Society.     6  vols.     $9. 

Green,  W.  H.  :  "The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis."  New 
York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3. 

Gray,  G.  B.  :  "  Numbers,"  "International  Critical  Commentary." 
New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3. 

Grenfell,  B.  p.,  and  Hunt,  A.  S.  "  Logia :  Sayings  of  our 
Lord."     Oxford  :  University  Press.     $.50. 

Harper,  A.:  "Song  of  Solomon,"  "Cambridge  Bible."  Cam- 
bridge :  University  Press.     Is.  Gd. 


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Harper,  R.  F.  :  "The  Code  of  Hammurabi."  Chicago:  Uui- 
versity  of  Chicago  Press.     London  :    Luzac  and  Co.     ^i. 

Harper,  W.  R.  :  "  Amos  and  Hosea,"  "  International  Critical 
Commentary."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     §3. 

Hastings,  J.:  "A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible."  New  York: 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  Edinbm-gh :  T.  and  T.  Clarlv. 
5  vols.      $6  each. 

Haupt,  Paul:  "Book  of  Ecclesiastes."  Baltimore:  Johns 
Hopkins  Press.     ^.50. 

Hazard,  M.  C,  and  Fowler,  H.  T.  :  "  The  Books  of  the  Bible 
with  relation  to  their  Place  in  History."  Boston,  New  York, 
Chicago  :  The  Pilgrim  Press.     $.50. 

HiLPRECHT,  H.  v.:  "Explorations  in  Bible  Lands."  Phila- 
delphia :  A.  J.  Holman  and  Co.     $-3. 

Holtzmaxn,  Oscar:  "The  Life  of  Jesus,"  New  Y'ork :  ]\Iac- 
millan  and  Co.     $4. 

Jastrow,  Morris  :  "  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria." 
Boston  :  Ginn  and  Co.     $3.2.5. 

Jewish  P^xcyclop.edia  :  New  York  and  London :  Funk  and 
Wagnalls  Company.     12  vols.     §72. 

Johns,  C.  II.  W.  :  "  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws,  Contracts, 
and  Letters."     NewY'ork:  Charles  Scribner'.s  Sons.     $3.80. 

JosEPHUS,  Flavius  :  English  translation  of  works  by  Shilleto. 
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Julicher,  Adolf  :  "  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament." 
New  Y^ork  :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.     $4.50. 

Kautzsch,  E.  :  "  The  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament."  New 
York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  London:  Williams  and 
Norgate.     $2. 

Keane,  a.  H,  :  "  Ethnology."  Cambridge  :  University  Press. 
$2.60. 

Kennedy,  H.  A.  A.  :  "  Philippians,"  "  Expositor's  Greek  Testa- 
ment," Vol.  HI.  New  York:  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.  $7.50 
per  vol. 

Kent,  C.  F.  :  "  A  History  of  the  Hebrew  People."  Vol.  L, 
"  United  Kingdom,"  Vol.  II.,  "  Divided  Kingdom."  New 
Y''ork :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.50  per  vol. 

Kent,  C.  F.  :  "A  History  of  the  Jewish  People,  Babylonian, 
Persian,  and  Greek  Periods."  New  York:  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's Sons.     $1.25. 

Kent,  C.  F.  :  "  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History."  New  York  : 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $2.75. 


224  APPENDIX 

Kent,  C.  F.  :  "Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical  Narratives." 
New  York  :  Charles  Scribiier's  Sons.     32Jb. 

Kent,  C.  F.  :  "  Israel's  Laws  and  Traditional  Precedents." 
New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     .12.75. 

Kent,  C.  F.:  "Messages  of  Israel's  Lawgivers."  New  York: 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     .^1.25. 

Kent,  C.  F.:  "Origin  and  Permanent  Value  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment."    New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     ^1. 

Kent,  C.  F. :  "The  Wise  Men  of  Ancient  Israel  and  their 
Proverbs."     Boston  :  Silver,  Burdett  and  Co.     .^1.25. 

KiRKPATRiCK,  A.  F.:  "Book  of  Psalms."  Cambiidge  :  Univer- 
sity Press.     $2. 

KiRKPATRiCK,  A.  F.  :  "Psalms,"  "  Cambridge  Bible."  Cam- 
bridge :  University  Press.  Book  I.  3^.  6d.,  Books  II.  III. 
2s.,  Books  IV.  V.  2s. 

KiTTEL,  R.:  "  History  of  the  Hebrews."  London:  Williams  and 
Norgate.     2  vols.     10s.  M.  each. 

Knowling,  R.  J.:  "Acts,"  "Expositor's  Greek  Testament," 
Vol.  II.     New  York  :  Dodd,  Mead,  and  Co.     $7.50  per  vol. 

Knowling,  R.  J.:  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  James," 
"  AVestminster  Commentaries."  London  :  Methuen  and  Co. 
$2.50. 

Knowling,  R.  J.:  "Testimony  of  St.  Paul  to  Christ."  New 
York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3. 

LiGHTFOOT,  J.  B.:  "St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians."  New 
York  and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3.25. 

LiGHTFOOT,  J.  B.:  "  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon."  New  York  and  London:  Macmillan  and  Co. 
$3.25. 

LiGHTFOOT,  J.  B.:  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians."  New 
York  and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3.25. 

MacCoun,  G.  a.:  "The  Holy  Land  in  History."  New  York: 
F.  H.  Revell  and  Co.     $1. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.:  "  Progress  of  Hellenism  in  Alexander's  Em- 
pire."    Chicago:  University  of  Chicago  Press.     $1. 

McCuRDY,  J.  F.:  "  History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments." 
New  York  and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     3  vols.    $3  each. 

McFadyen,  J.  E.:  "Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament."  New 
York:  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.  London:  Hodder  and 
Stoughton.     $1.75. 

McFadyen,  J.  E.:  "  INIessages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  His- 
torians."    New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.25. 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY  225 

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Age."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     S2.50. 
Margolioutii,  D.  S.:  "Lines of  Defence  of  Biblical  Revelation." 

Loudou  :  Hodder  and  Stoughton.     $1.50. 
Maspero,   G.:    "The   Passing  of   Empires."      New  Y'ork  :    D. 

Appleton  and   Co.     $7.50. 
Maspero,  G.:  "The   Struggle  of  the   Nations."     New  Y'ork: 

D.  Appleton  and  Co.     S7.50. 
Massie,  Johx  :    "Corinthians,"  "New-Century  Bible."      New 

Y'ork  and  London:    Henry  Frowde.     $.90. 
Mathews,  Shailer  :  "  A  History  of  New  Testament  Times  in 

Palestine."     New  York  and   London :    Macmillan  and   Co. 

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Mayor,  J.  B.:  "The  Epistle  of  St.  James."     New   Y'ork  and 

London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     i^S-SO. 
Menzies,    Allan:    "The   Earliest   Gospel."     New   Y''ork    and 

London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $2.75. 
Mitchell,    H.    G.:    "The    World   before    Abraham."     Boston, 

New  York:    Houghton,   Mifflin  and  Co.     $1.75. 
Moffatt,  James:    "The  Historical   New  Testament."      New 

York:    Charles   Scribner's   Sons.     $4.50. 
Moller,   Wilhelm  :    "Are   the   Critics   Eight?"     New   Y'ork, 

Chicago,  Toronto:    F.  H.   Revell   Co.     $1. 
Moore,  G.  F.:  "Judges,"  "International  Critical  Commentary." 

New  York :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3. 
Moultox,  R.  G.:  "A  Short  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the 

Bible."     Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.     $1. 
Moulton,  K,.  G.  :  "  The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible."     Boston: 

D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.     $2. 
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Boston:    Dana,    Estes  and  Co.;    London:    Archibald    Con- 
stable and  Co.     $1.20. 
Orr,  James:    "The    Problem   of  the    Old   Testament."     New 

York:   Charles   Scribner's   Sons.     $1.50. 
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London:  Macmillan  and  Co.     $1.10. 
Patox,  L.  B.:  "Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine."     New 

York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sous.     $1.25. 
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Vol.  HI.     S7.5()  ].er  vol. 
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15 


226  APPENDIX 

Perowne,  J.  J.  S.:  "The  Book  of  Psalms."     New  York  and 

Loudon  :  Macnnllan  and  Co.     2  vols.     ^5. 
Peters,  J.    P.:    "Early  Hebrew    Story."      New   York:    G.   P. 

Putnam's  Sons.     London  :  Williams  and  Norgate.     $1.25. 
Plummer,  Alfred  :   "  Epistles  of  St.  John,"  "  Cambridge  Greek 

Testament."    New  York  and  Loudon  :  Macmillan  and  Co.  §il. 
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Plumptre,  E.  H.  :  "  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,"  "  Cambridge  Bible." 

Cambridge  :  L^niversity  Press.     5s. 
Plumptre,    E.    H.  :    "Epistles    of   St.   Peter   and   St.   Jude, " 

"Cambridge  Bible."     New  York  and  London:  Macmillan 

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Porter,    F.     C.  :    "Messages   of   the   Apocalyptical   Writers." 

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Chicago:  The  Christian  Culture  Press.     $1.50. 
Ramsay,    AV.    M.  :    "  Historical    Commentary    on    St.     Paul's 

Epistle  to   the    Galatians."     New   York :    G.  P.    Putnam's 

Sons.     $3. 
Ramsay,  W.  M.  :  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen." 

New  York  :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.     $3. 
Ramsay,  W.    M.  :    "  AVas  Christ  born   at   Bethlehem?  "     New 

York :    G.     P.    Putnam's     Sons.      Loudon  :     Hodder    and 

Stoughton.     $1.75. 
Rhees,  Rush  :  "  The  Life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth."     New  York  : 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.25. 
RiGGS,   J.   S.  :    "A  History   of   the  Jewish  People,  Maccabean 

and    Roman    Periods."      New    York:    Charles   Scribner's 

Sons.     $r.25. 
RoBixsox,  J.  A.  :  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians."     New 

York  and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3. 
Rogers,  R.  W.  :    "  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria."     New 

York  :    Eaton  and  Mains.    Cincinnati :   Jennings  and  Pye. 

2  vols.     S5. 
Ropes,  J.    H. :    "  The   Apostolic    Age  in  the   Light  of   Modern 

Criticism."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.50. 
Ryle,  PL  E.  :  "  Early  Narratives  of   Genesis."    New  York  and 

London:  Macmillan  and  Co.     $1. 
Ryle,  H.  E.,  and  James,  M.  R.  :  "Psalms  of  the  Pharisees,  or 

Psalms  of  Solomon."     Cambridge:  University  Press.     New 

York:  Macmillan  and  Co.     §3.75. 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAl'IIY  22 


Salmon,  George  :  "  Historical  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Books  of  the  New  Testament."  London :  John  Murray. 
New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3.r)0. 

Salmond,  S.  D.  F. :  "Ephesians,"  "Expositor's  Greek  Testa- 
ment,'' Vol.  TIL  New  York  :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co. 
^7.5U  per  vol. 

Sanday,  William:  "Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Christ."  New 
York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,     f  1.25. 

Sanday,  William:  "  Tlie  Criticism  of  the  Fourth  Gospel," 
New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.75. 

Sanday,  W.,  and  Headlam,  A.  C.  :  "  Romans,"  "  International 
Critical  Commentary."    New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Sanders,  F.  K.  :    "The    Teacher's  Life   of   Christ."     Boston: 

Bible  Study  Publishing  Co.     |1. 
Sanders,  F.  K.,   and  Kent,  C.  F.  :  "Messages  of  the  Earlier 

Prophets."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.    $1.25. 
Sanders,  F.  K.,  and  Kent,  C.    F.  :   "  Messages   of   the   Later 

Prophets."     New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $1.25. 
Sayce,   a.   11. ;    "Babylonians   and   Assyrians."     New    York: 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $L25. 
Sayce,  A.  H. :  "  Records  of  Past."     New  York  :  James  Pott  and 

Co.     6  vols.     $L50  each. 
SchI'rer,  E.  :  "Jewish  People  in  Time  of  Jesus  Christ."     New 

York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     5  vols.     $8. 
Scott,  C.  A. :  "  The  Book  of  Revelation,"  "New-Century  Bible." 

New  York  and  London:  Henry  Frowdc.     $.90. 
Skinner,  J.:    "  Ezekiel,"    "Expositor's   Bible."      New   York: 

A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     .|1..50. 
Skinner,  J.  :  "  Isaiah  XL-LXVf,"  "  Cambridge  Bible."     Cam- 
bridge :   L'^niversity  Press.      Is. 
Smith,  G.  A.:    "  Book  of  Isaiah,"  "  Expositor's  Bible."     New 

York:  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     2  vols.     $1.50  each. 
Smith,  G.  A.:  "Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets,"  "  Expositor's 

Bible."     New  York :  A.   C.   Armstrong  and   Son.     2   vols. 

$1.50  each. 
Smith,    G.    A.      "  Historical    Geography  of    tlie    Holy   Land." 

New  York:  A.  C.  Armstrong  and  Son.     $1.50. 
Smith,  G.  A.:  "  INIodern  Criticism  and  Preaching  of  the  Old 

Testament."      Now    York :    A.    C.    Armstrong    and    Son. 

$1.50. 
Smith,  H.  P.:  "  Old  Testament  History."     New  York  :  Charles 

Scribner's  Sons.     $2.50. 


228  APPENDIX 

Smith,  H.  P.:  "Samuel,"  "International  Critical  Commen- 
tary,"    New  York:  Charles  Scribuer's  Sons.     ^3. 

Smith,  W.  R.  :  "  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church."  Lon- 
don and  Edinburgh  :  A.  and  C.  Black.     10s.  6d. 

Stevens,  G.  B.  :  "  The  Messages  of  Paul."  New  York:  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.     |1.25. 

Stevens,  W.  A.,  and  Burton,  E.  D.  :  "A  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels."     New  York  :   Charles  iScribner's  Sons.     SI. 

SwETE,  H.  B. :  "  The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark."  New 
York  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3.75. 

Toy,  C.  H.  :  "  Ezekiel "  in  "  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments."     New  York  :  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.    $2.50. 

Toy,  C.  II.  :  "Proverbs,"  "International  Critical  Commen- 
tary."    New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     $3. 

Vincent,  M.  R.  :  "  Philippians  and  Philemon,"  "International 
Critical  Commentary."  New  York:  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons.     $2. 

Von  Soden,  Hermann:  "  History  Early  Christian  Literature." 
New  York  :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  London  :  Williams  and 
Norgate.     $1.50. 

Votaw,  C.  W.  :  "  The  Apostolic  Age."  New  York  aiad  Lon- 
don :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $.75. 

Wade,  G.  W.  :  "Old  Testament  History."  New  York:  E.  P. 
Button  and  Co.     London:  Methuen  and  Co.     $1.50. 

Weiss,  Bernhard  :  "  A  Manual  of  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament. "  New  York  :  The  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Co. 
2  vols.     $4. 

Weizsacker,  Carl  :  "  The  Apostolic  Age  of  the  Christian 
Church."  New  York:  G.  P.  Putman's  Sons.  London: 
Williams  and  Norgate.     2  vols.     $7. 

Westcott,  B.  F.  :  "The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews."  New  York 
and  London :  Macmillan  and  Co.     SI. 

Westcott,  B.  F.  :  "The  Epistles  of  St.  John."  New  York 
and  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.     $3.50,  r2.s'.  6d. 

Worcester,  E.  :  "  The  Book  of  Genesis  in  the  Light  of  Modern 
Knowledge."     New  York  :  McClure,  Phillips  and  Co.     $3. 


INDEX   OF   BIBLICAL  BOOKS  AND 
PASSAGES 


Genesis. 

Page 

i-1 56 

i-xi,  26 48 

i-ii,  4a 30 

ii,  4b-25 32 

ii,  8-17 33 

iii,  1-24 33 

iv,  1-lGa       35 

iv,  16b-v 3G 

iv,  23,  24 70 

vi-ix,  19       39 

ix,  20-28 41 

X 41 

xi,  1-9 43 

xi,  10-26 44 

xi,  27-xxv,  18 50 

XXV,  19-xxxvi 53 

xxxvii-1       55 

xlix 70 

xlix,  1-27 81 


Exodus. 


i-xix,  2a  .  . 
xiii,  6,  10-13  . 
XV,  1-18  .  .  . 
xix,  2b-xl  .  . 
XX, 1-17  .  . 
XX,  23-xxiii,  19 


58 

103 

70 

61 

103 

103 


xxxiv,  14-26 71,  81 


Leviticus. 


i-x 
i-iii 
v-vii 
xi-xv 


135 
131 
131 
131 


Page 

xi 122 

xii-xvi 135 

xvii-xxvi 122 

xxvii 135 

NusiBEKS. 


V,  vi 

131 

X,  11-xxxiv       .... 

62 

X,  35,  .36 

70 

XV,  xix,  14-22       .     .     . 

131 

xxi,  14 

81 

xxi,  17,  18 

70 

xxi,  27-30 

70 

xxni,  xxiv 

70 

xxiii,  7-10,  18-24,  xxiv,  3-9, 

15-17    

.       81 

Deuteronomy. 

i-xxxiv 104,  125 

v-xxvi,  xxviii   .     .     .     .       103,  107 

xxxii,  1-43 122 

xxxiii 94 

JosnuA. 

i-xii 66 

X,  13 81 

xiii-.\xii 66 


xxiii,  xxiv 


Judges. 


i-ii,  5  .     .     .     .     . 
ii,  6-xxi   .     .     .     . 

v 

ix,  8-15    .     .     .     . 
xiv,  14,  18,  XV,  10 


66 


66 

68 
70 
70 
70 


230 


I-IV 


Ruth. 


1  Samuel. 


APPENDIX 

I                        Esther. 
i-x       145,  147 

Job. 


Page 
68,  136 


l-VU       .       . 

viii-xxxi 
XXX,  24,  25 


2  Samuel. 


i-xxiv       .... 

i,  17 

i,  19-27,  iii,  33,  34 


68 
73 
81 


74 
81 
80 


1  Kings. 


i-xi 

.       78 

Xll-XVl 

82 

xvii-2  Kings  iii      .     .     .     . 

.       83 

2  Kings. 

i-iii 

.       83 

iv-xvii 

87 

xi-xxi 

.       95 

xxii-xxv 

.     104 

1  Chronicles. 


i-xxix 
xi-xxix 


140,  142 

,     .       76 


2  Chronicles. 

i-xxvi 140,  142 

i-ix 78 

x-xxii,  9 83 

Ezra. 

i-x  .......      140,  142 

i-vi 127 

iv-vi 136 

vii-x 132 


Page 


i-xlil 


138 


Psalms. 


i-cl 


157 

ii,  xviii,  XX,  xxi,  xxviii       .     .  113 

iii-xli 137 

xlii,  xliii 118 

xlv,  Ixi,  Ixxii,  Ixxvi,  Ixxxix, 

ci,  ex 113 

Proverbs. 

i-xxxi 142 

x-xxii,  16,  xxv-xxix     ...  114 


Ecclesiastes. 


141,  144 


Song  of  Solomon, 


l-Vlll 


Isaiah 


i-xxxix  .  . 
i-xxxv  .  . 
xiii,  2-xiv,  23 
xxi,  1-10 
xxiv-xxvii  . 
xxxiv,  XXXV 
xxxvi-xxxix 
xl-lv  .  .  . 
xl-xlviii  .  . 
xlix-lv  .  . 
Ivi-lxii  .  . 
Ixiii-lxvi 


143 


.     .       99 

.     .       96 

123,  125 

123,  125 

133,  137 

133,  135 

.     .       95 

.     .      ]  24 

.     .      125 

.     .      125 

128,  131 

133.  135 


Jeremiah, 


Nehemiah. 


I-XIU      .       . 

i-vii,  5,  xiii 


140,  142 
.     .     136 


i-lii 


104 


i,  ii,  iii,   1-5,  6-18,  iii,   19-iv, 

2,  iv,  3-vi,  xi,  1-8       ...     108 

vii,  1-20,  vii,  21-viii,  22,  ix,x, 
17-25,  xi,  9-17,  xi,  18- 


BIBLICAL  BOOKS  AND   PASSAGES 


231 


Page 
xii,  6,  xii,  7-17,  xiii,  1-17, 
xiii,  18,  19,  xiii,  20-27,  xiv, 
1-xvii,  IS,  xviii-xx     .     .     .     110 
xxi,  1-10,  xxi,  U-xxii,  9  .     .     Ill 

xxii,  10-xxiii,  8 110 

xxiii,  9-40 Ill 

xxiv 111,117 

XXV,  xxvi 110 

xxvii-xxix Ill 

xxix 11" 

xxx-xxxiii,  xxxiv     .     .     .     .     Ill 

XXXV,  xxxvi 110 

xxxvii-xxxix,  xl-xliv    .     .     .     Ill 

xliv 117 

xlv 110 

xlvi-xlix Ill 

1,  li       124,125 

lii Ill 


Lasientations. 


1-V 


118,  121 


Page 


Obauiau. 
1-21 118,  121 

Jonah. 


141,  142 


MlCAII. 

i-vii 96,  101 


Naiiim. 


i-m 


1-111 


i-iu 


Habakkuk. 


Zephaniah, 


109 


110 


105 


Haggai. 


EZEKIEL. 

i-xxiv 104,112 

xxv-xlviii 117 

xxv-xxxii 119 

xxix,  1-16,  XXX,  xxxi    .     .     .  112 

xxxiii-xxxix 120 

xl-xlviii 120 


Daniel, 


l-Vl,   VU-Xll 

vii-xi  . 


154 

152 


1, 11     . 

Zechariah. 

127,  130 

i-viii     . 

128, 130 

ix-xiv 

140,  142 

Malachi. 
-iv 132,  135 


Matthew. 


IIOSEA. 

i-xiv 88,93 

Joel. 
i-iii 133,  136 

Amo8. 
i-ix 88,  92 


I-XXVIU 


174.  185 


Mark. 
i-xvi 174,  184 

Luke. 
i-xxiv 175,  186 

■John. 
i-xxi 175,  187,214 


232 


APPENDIX 


Acts. 

Page 

i-xxviii 202 

i-xii 189 

i,  3,  4,  9,  13,  16,  22,  ii,  22,  23, 

iii,  13,  14,  iv,  27,  x.  38-41    .  172 

xiii-xviii,  22 192 

xiii,  24-31 172 

xviii,  23-xxi,  16 196 

XX,  35 172 

xxi,  17-xxviii 202 

xxii,  3-21,  XX vi,  2-23     ...  189 

Romans. 

i-xvi 197,  200 

i,  3,  V,  19 171 

vii,  7-11 190 

viii,  3,  ix,  5,  xv,  3,  8       .     .     .  171 

1  Corinthians. 

i-xvi 197,  199 

ii,  1-5       192 

ii,  2,  vii,  10,   11,  ix,  5,   14,  xi, 

23-26,  XV,  3-8 171 

2  Corinthians. 

i-xiii 197,  200 

iv,  14,  V,  21 171 

vi,  14-vii,  1 200 

viii,  9,  X,  1 171 

X,  1-xiii,  10 200 

xi.  21-27,  32,  33,  xii,  1-4    .     .  190 

Galatians. 

i-vi 192,  195 

i,  11-ii,  10 190 

i,  19,  iv,  4,  vi,  2 171 


Ephesians. 


i-vi      .... 
iii,  19,  iv,  10,  V,  2 


.       203,  207 
.     .     .     171 


Philippians. 


i-iv 
1,5 


203,  208 
,     .     192 


Page 

ii,  5-11 172 

iv,  15,  16       192 

COLOSSIANS. 

i-iv 203,  207 

iii,  16 172 

1  Thessalonians. 

i-v 192,  195 

iv,  14,  15 171 

2  Thessalonians. 

i-iii 192,  195 

1  Timothy. 

i-vi 205,  208 

ii,  5,  6,  iii,  16 172 

2  Timothy. 

i-iv 205,  208 

Titus. 
i-iii 205,  208 

Philemon. 
1-25 203,  207 

Hebrews. 

i-xiii 210 

ii,   10,   18,  iv,   15,  v,  7-9,  vii, 
14,  xii,  2,  3,  xiii,  12   .     .     .     172 

James. 
i-v 191,  214 

1  Peter. 

i-v 206,  208 

ii,  22,  23 172 


BIBLICAL  BOOKS  AND  PASSAGES 


2  Petkr. 


i-m 

i,  16,  18 


1  John. 


i-v 

i,  5,  iii,  8,  iv,  9,  21,  v,  6 


2  John. 


1-12 


215 
172 


213 
172 


213 


3  Joiix. 


1-13 


1-24 


Juni:. 


Revelation. 


i-xxu 

i,  5,  V,  5,  xxii,  IG 


Page 
213 


215 


211 
172 


PLATE 


PALESTINE  at  the  time  of  the  COJiQCEST 


PLATE  II 

PALESTIXE  after  the  COXQl  EST 


I      jAiTiuiitfK 
■f-T'^]      |Auialekilf.«' 

I lEUiiniilca 

i  lAninionitt-s 
I  IPhlli.stiucn. 
] iCunHHiiiies' 


/     Damaecua 


I      lAliiali'klU' 
C^MoHblU'i. 
I      IKJuliilH'B 
I      lAnnnollUt^^ 

I IPlllli-.lllK-s 

I     IC.iiiiiiiiillei- 
I      I  Hebrt-WD 


Daiuhhciik 


Phlir^thu- 

CD 

Bvbrewe 


PALESTINE  uiid.r  DAVIU 


Tin:  on  ii»i:i»  ki.vuuum 


PLATE  III 


PLATE  IV 


PLATE  V 


Western  Aaia  iu  the  time  of  ANTIOCIIDS  EPirUANES,  176-164  B.C. 


'  DaiiiUKcuu 


Jl'l>KA  under  Jt'UAMuiid  JONATHAN 
ini-lVi  It.C. 


JL'UEA  under  ALICX  AM>I':Jt  JANNAEIH 
104-78  U.V. 


KINGDOM  of  IIEROU  THE  CnEAT. 
SO-i  IJ.  C. 


PLATE  VI 

PALESTINE  under  SON'S  of  IIEROU, 

4  IJ.  f..«  A.  D. 


M,-ft     WOflKS 


I'ALEhTINE  In  Hit-  lluic  utCllKlisT 


I'ALtsTiM;  ui.iiii  Hilton  AiiUirrA, 

1  I  A.  I». 


THE    STUDENT'S 
OLD  TESTAMENT 

Logically  and  chronologically  arranged  and  translated 
by  Professor  CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT,  of  Yale 
University.  6  volumes,  Svo.  Each  $2.75  net. 
(Postage    15  cents.) 

This  series  will  contain  the  complete  Old  Testament  logically 
and  chronologically  arranged,  together  with  a  clear,  vivid,  and 
dignified  translation,  which  will  represent  not  merely  the  words,  but 
also  the  ideas,  the  spirit,  and  the  beauty  of  the  original.  The  work- 
embodies  the  positive  conclusions  of  many  hundreds  of  earnest, 
critical  scholars.  It  is  an  introduction,  a  commentary,  and  a  his- 
tory all  in  one. 

VOLUMES  NOW  READY 
Narratives  of  the  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History 

Introduction.  The  Beginnings  of  Human  History.  Tradi- 
tional Ancestors  of  the  Hebrews.  Deliverance  of  the  Hebrews 
from  Egypt.  Life  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  Wilderness  and  East 
of  the  Jordan.     Conquest  and  Settlement  of  Canaan. 

Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical  Narratives 

Introduction.  The  Establishment  and  Rule  of  the  United 
Monarchy.  History  of  Northern  Israel.  History  of  Judah. 
Reestablishment  of  the  Jewish  Community  in  I'alestine.  The 
Maccabean  Struggle.     Life  of  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion. 

VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION 
Prophetic  Sermons,  Epistles,  and  Apocalypses 
Laws  and  Traditional  Precedents 
Songs,  Psalms,  and  Prayers 
Proverbs  and  Didactic  Poems 

specimen  pages  and  full  descriptive  circular  0/  ill  is  set 
will  be  sent  on  application 


CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

153-157  FTFTTT   AVFXUK,   NEW  YORK 


THE  MESSAGES  OF 
THE  BIBLE 

Edited  by  FRANK  KNIGHT  SANDERS,  Ph.D., 
sometime  Professor  of  Biblical  History  and  Archceology 
in  Yale  University,  and  CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT, 
Ph.D.,Woolsey  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in  Yale 
University.      12  volumes,  i2mo.     Each  $1.25  net. 

A  series  of  hand  books  in  which  the  essential  meaning  of  the  various 
BooliS  of  the  Bible  is  presented  to  the  English  reader  in  plain  language,  in 
their  chronological  and  historical  setting,  and  with  such  other  notes  as  may- 
be necessary  to  elucidate  obscure  names  and  phrases,  or  to  illustrate  some 
idiom  or  metaphor  of  the  original.  The  purpose  of  the  series  is  to  enable 
any  reader  of  the  Bible  to  understand  its  meaning  as  a  reverent  scholar  of 
to-day  does,  and  in  particular  to  receive  the  exact  impression  which  the  words 
as  originally  heard  or  read  must  have  made  upon  those  for  whom  they  were 
delivered.  It  is,  in  short,  a  well-conceived,  thoroughly  equipped,  and 
carefully  organized  attempt  to  state  the  essence  of  the  religious  experience 
and  Divine  revelation  which  form  the  contents  of  the  Bible. 

VOLUMES  NOW  READY 

Messages  of  the  Earlier  Prophets.     By  Professors  Sanders  and   Kent,   of 

Yale  University. 
Messages  of  the  Later  Prophets.     By  Professors  Sanders  and  Kent. 
Messages  of  Israel's  Law^givers.     By  Professor  Charles  F.  Kent,  Ph.D. 
Messages  of  the  Prophetical  and  Priestly  Historians.    By  Professor  John  E. 

McFadven,  M.A.,  of  Knox  College,  Toronto. 
The  Messages  of  the  Psalmists.     By  Professor  John  E.  McFadyen,  M.A.,  of 

Knox  College,  Toronto. 
The  Messages  of  the  Apocalyptic  Writers.     By  Professor  Frank  C.  Porter, 

Ph.D.,D.D.,  of  Yale  University. 
The  Messages  of  Jesus  According  to  the  Synoptists.     By  Professor  Thomas 

C.  Hall,  of  Union  Theological  Seminary. 
The  Messages  of  Paul.     By  Professor  George  B.  Stevens,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  of 

Yale  University. 
The  Messages  of  the  Apostles.     By  Professor  George  B.   Stevens,   D.D., 

Ph.D.,  of  Yale  University. 

VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION 

The  Messages  of  the  Sages.     By  Professor  Frank  K.  Sanders,  Ph.D. 

The  Messages  of  the  Poets.     By  Professor  Nathaniel  ScHwrnT,  Ph.D.,  of 

Cornell  University. 
The  Messages  of  Jesus  According  to  John.     By  Professor  James  S.  Riggs, 

D.D.,  of  Auburn  Theological  Seminary. 

Specimen pa,^es  and  fuU  descriptive  circular  of  this  set 
ivill  be  se7it  free  on  application 


CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

153-157  FIFTH  AVENUE,   NEW  YORK 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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BECi 


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miy  I  J,  j^ 


Form  L9-Series  4939 


